The geographic shell is a special complex shell of the Earth. Geographical envelope Geographical envelope, its components, relationships between them

The geographic envelope is a complete and continuous shell of the Earth, formed as a result of the interpenetration and interaction of substances of individual geospheres - the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. Its boundaries are unclear, so scientists define them differently. The upper boundary is taken to be the ozone screen at an altitude of 25-30 km, the lower boundary is taken within the lithosphere at a depth of several hundred meters, sometimes up to 4-5 km or along the ocean floor. It consists entirely of the hydrosphere and the biosphere, most of atmosphere and part of the lithosphere. The geographic envelope constitutes a complex dynamic system, which is characterized by the presence of substances in three states of aggregation - solid, liquid and gaseous, oxidizing environment and living matter, complex migration of matter with the participation of water, oxygen and living organisms, concentration of solar energy and wealth various types free energy.

The geographical envelope covers the entire planet, therefore it is considered a planetary complex. It is here that all the shells come into close contact and interpenetrate and life is focused. The geographical shell contains a living human society; it has a number of specific features. It is distinguished by a wide variety of composition and types of energy. The geographical envelope is heterogeneous not only in the vertical, but also in the horizontal directions. It differentiates into separate natural complexes - relatively homogeneous parts of the Earth's surface. Its differentiation into natural complexes is due to the uneven supply of heat to its different parts and the heterogeneity of the earth's surface.

Zonal features of the geographical envelope

The geographic envelope has a number of regularities. The most important of them are: integrity, rhythm of development, horizontal zoning and altitudinal zonation. Integrity is the unity of the geographical shell, due to the interconnectedness of its components. A change in one of the components certainly entails a change in the others. Thus, forests lead to a whole chain of natural changes: forest plants and animals disappear - soils are destroyed and washed away - the level of groundwater- rivers become shallow. Integrity is achieved by the circulation of matter and energy (atmospheric circulation, system of sea currents, water cycle, biological cycle). They ensure repeatability of processes and phenomena and promote relationships between natural components.

Due to the rotation of the Earth around its axis and the Sun, uneven heating of the earth's surface, all processes and phenomena in the geographic envelope are repeated after a certain period of time. This is how rhythmicity arises - the natural repetition of natural phenomena and processes over time. There are daily and seasonal rhythms, for example, the changes of day and night, seasons, ebb and flow, and the like. There are rhythms that repeat after a certain period of time: windows of climate fluctuations and water levels in lakes and the like.

Zoning is a natural change in natural components and natural complexes in the direction from the equator to the poles. It is caused by different amounts of heat due to the sphericity of the Earth. Zonal complexes include geographic zones and natural zones. Geographical belts are the most zonal complexes, extending in the latitudinal direction (equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, etc.). Each geographical zone is divided into smaller complexes of natural zones (steppes, deserts, semi-deserts, forests).

Altitudinal zonation is a natural change in natural components and natural complexes with an ascent into the mountains from their foot to the peaks. It is caused by climate change with altitude: a decrease in temperature (by 0.6 ° C for every 100 m of rise) and up to a certain altitude (up to 2-3 km) an increase in precipitation. Altitudinal zonation has the same sequence as on the plain when moving from the equator to the poles. However, natural zones in the mountains change much faster than natural zones on the plains. In addition, in the mountains there is a special belt of subalpine and alpine meadows, which is not found on the plains. The number of altitudinal zones that begin with an analogue of the horizontal zone within which the mountains are located depends on the height of the mountains and location.

Introduction

Conclusion

Introduction

The geographic envelope of the Earth (synonyms: natural-territorial complexes, geosystems, geographic landscapes, epigeosphere) is the sphere of interpenetration and interaction of the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. Has complex spatial differentiation. The vertical thickness of the geographic shell is tens of kilometers. The integrity of the geographic envelope is determined by the continuous exchange of energy and mass between the land and the atmosphere, the World Ocean and organisms. Natural processes in the geographic shell are carried out due to the radiant energy of the Sun and the internal energy of the Earth. Within the geographical shell, humanity arose and is developing, drawing resources from the shell for its existence and influencing it.

The geographic envelope was first defined by P.I. Brounov back in 1910 as “the outer shell of the Earth.” This is the most complex part of our planet, where the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere touch and interpenetrate. Only here is the simultaneous and stable existence of matter in solid, liquid and gaseous states possible. In this shell, the absorption, transformation and accumulation of the radiant energy of the Sun occurs; only within its boundaries did the emergence and spread of life become possible, which, in turn, was a powerful factor in the further transformation and complication of the epigeosphere.

The geographic envelope is characterized by integrity, determined by the connections between its components, and uneven development in time and space.

The unevenness of development over time is expressed in the directed rhythmic (periodic - daily, monthly, seasonal, annual, etc.) and non-rhythmic (episodic) changes inherent in this shell. As a consequence of these processes, the different ages of individual parts of the geographical envelope, the inheritance of the course of natural processes, and the preservation of relict features in existing landscapes are formed. Knowledge of the basic patterns of development of the geographical envelope allows in many cases to predict natural processes.

The doctrine of geographical systems (geosystems) is one of the main fundamental achievements of geographical science. It is still actively being developed and discussed. Because this teaching not only has a deep theoretical meaning as a key basis for the targeted accumulation and systematization of factual material in order to obtain new knowledge. Its practical significance is also great, since it is precisely this systems approach to the consideration of the infrastructure of geographical objects is the basis of the geographical zoning of territories, without which it is impossible to identify and solve, either locally, or even more so globally, any problems relating to one degree or another to the interaction of man, society and nature: neither environmental, nor environmental management, nor in general the optimization of the relationship between humanity and the natural environment.

Purpose test work is to consider the geographical envelope from the perspective of modern ideas. To achieve the goal of the work, a number of tasks should be outlined and solved, the main of which will be:

1 consideration of the geographical shell as a material system;

2 consideration of the main patterns of the geographical envelope;

3 determination of the reasons for the differentiation of the geographical envelope;

4 consideration of physical-geographical zoning and determination of the system of taxonomic units in physical geography.

1. Geographical shell as a material system, its boundaries, structure and qualitative differences from other earthly shells

According to S.V. Kalesnik1, the geographical shell “is not just a physical or mathematical surface, but a complex complex that has arisen and is developing under the influence of interconnected and interpenetrating processes that unfold on land, in the atmosphere, waters and the organic world.”

Defining the geographic envelope, S.V. Kalesnik emphasized: 1) its complexity, 2) multicomponentity - the natural shell consists of parts - earth's crust, forming forms of relief, water, atmosphere, soil, living organisms (bacteria, plants, animals, humans); 3) volume. “Shell” is a three-dimensional concept.

It should be borne in mind that the geographic envelope is characterized by a number of specific features. It is distinguished primarily by the great variety of material composition and types of energy characteristic of all component shells - the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. Through general (global) cycles of matter and energy, they are united into an integral material system. To understand the patterns of development of this unified system is one of most important tasks modern geographical science.

The geographic envelope is an area of ​​interaction between intraplanetary (endogenous) and external (exogenous) cosmic processes that take place during active participation organic matter2.

The dynamics of the geographic shell depend entirely on the energy of the earth's interior in the zone of the outer core and asthenosphere and on the energy of the Sun. Tidal interactions of the Earth–Moon system also play a certain role.

The projection of intraplanetary processes onto the earth's surface and their subsequent interaction with solar radiation is ultimately reflected in the formation of the main components of the geographical shell of the upper crust, relief, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. Current state geographical shell is the result of its long evolution, which began with the emergence of planet Earth.

Scientists distinguish three stages in the development of the geographical envelope: the first, the longest (about 3 billion years)3, was characterized by the existence of the simplest organisms; the second stage lasted about 600 million years and was marked by the appearance higher forms living organisms; the third stage is modern. It began about 40 thousand years ago. Its peculiarity is that people are increasingly beginning to influence the development of the geographical envelope, and, unfortunately, negatively (destruction of the ozone layer, etc.).

The geographic envelope is characterized by a complex composition and structure. The main material components of the geographic envelope are the rocks that make up the earth's crust (with their shape - relief), air masses, water accumulations, soil cover and biocenoses; In polar latitudes and high mountains, the role of ice accumulations is significant. The main energy components are gravitational energy, internal heat of the planet, radiant energy from the Sun and energy from cosmic rays. Despite the limited set of components, their combinations can be very diverse; it depends on the number of components included in the combination and on their internal variations (since each component is also a very complex natural complex), and most importantly, on the nature of their interaction and interconnections, i.e., on the geographical structure.

A.A. Grigoriev placed the upper limit of the geographic envelope (GE) at an altitude of 20-26 km above sea level, in the stratosphere, below the layer of maximum ozone concentration. Ultraviolet radiation, harmful to living things, is intercepted by the ozone screen.

Atmospheric ozone is formed mainly above 25 km. It enters lower layers due to turbulent mixing of air and vertical movements of air masses. O3 density is low near the earth's surface and in the troposphere. Its maximum is observed at altitudes of 20-26 km. The total ozone content X in a vertical air column ranges from 1 to 6 mm, if brought to normal pressure (1013.2 mbar) at t = 0oC. The value of X is called the reduced thickness of the ozone layer or the total amount of ozone.

Below the boundary of the ozone screen, air movement is observed due to the interaction of the atmosphere with land and ocean. The lower boundary of the geographic shell, according to Grigoriev, passes where tectonic forces cease to act, that is, at a depth of 100-120 km from the surface of the lithosphere, along the upper part of the subcrustal layer, which greatly influences the formation of the relief.

S.V. Kalesnik places the upper limit of G.O. just like A.A. Grigoriev, at the level of the ozone screen, and the lower one - at the level of occurrence of the foci of ordinary earthquakes, that is, at a depth of no more than 40-45 km and no less than 15-20 km. This depth is the so-called zone of hypergenesis (Greek hyper- above, above, genesis- origin). This is the zone sedimentary rocks, arising in the process of weathering, changes in igneous and metamorphic rocks of primary origin.

The views of D. L. Armand differ from these ideas about the boundaries of civil defense. D.L.Armand's geographical sphere includes the troposphere, hydrosphere and the entire earth's crust (silicate sphere of geochemists), located under the oceans at a depth of 8-18 km and below high mountains at a depth of 49-77 km. In addition to the geographical sphere itself, D.L. Armand proposes to distinguish between the “Great Geographical Sphere”, including in it the stratosphere, extending to a height of up to 80 km above the ocean, and the eclogite sphere or sima, that is, the entire thickness of the lithosphere, with the lower horizon of which (700-1000 km) are associated with deep-focus earthquakes.

Obviously, with the views of D.L. Armand cannot agree. This interpretation of civil defense does not correspond to the content of this concept. It is difficult to see in this conglomerate of spheres - from the stratosphere to the eclogite sphere - a single complex, new system with its own special, individual qualities. The subject of physical geography becomes vague, devoid of specific content, and physical geography itself, as a science, loses its boundaries, merging with other geosciences.

Qualitative differences between the geographical shell and other shells of the Earth: the geographical shell is formed under the influence of both terrestrial and cosmic processes; exceptionally rich different types free energy; the substance is present in all states of aggregation; the degree of aggregation of matter is extremely diverse - from free elementary particles through atoms, ions, molecules to chemical compounds and complex biological bodies; concentration of heat flowing from the Sun; the presence of human society.

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2. The circulation of matter and energy in the geographic envelope

Due to the contradictory interaction of GO components, a multiplicity of systems arises. For example, precipitation is a climatic process, the runoff of precipitation is a hydrological process, and transpiration of moisture by plants is a biological process. This example clearly shows the transition of one process to another. And all together this is an example of a large water cycle in nature. The geographical envelope, its unity, integrity exists thanks to the extremely intense circulation of substances and the energy associated with it. Gyres can be considered as extremely diverse forms of interaction between components (atmosphere - volcanism). The efficiency of cycles in nature is colossal, since they ensure the repetition of the same processes and phenomena, high overall efficiency with a limited volume of the initial substance participating in these processes. Examples: large and small water cycle; atmospheric circulation; sea ​​currents; rock cycles; biological cycles.

The cycles vary in degree of complexity: some are reduced primarily to circular mechanical movements, others are accompanied by a change state of aggregation substances, others are accompanied by chemical transformation.

Assessing the cycle by its initial and final links, we see that the substance that has entered the cycle often experiences restructuring in the intermediate links. Therefore, the idea of ​​a cycle is included in the concept of the interchange of matter and energy.

All gyres are not gyres in the strict sense of the word. They are not completely closed, and the final stage of the cycle is not at all identical to its initial stage.

By absorbing solar energy, a green plant assimilates molecules carbon dioxide and water. As a result of such assimilation, organic matter is formed and free oxygen is simultaneously released.

The gap between the final and initial stages the cycle forms a vector of directed change, that is, development.

The basis of all cycles in nature is migration and redistribution chemical elements. The ability of elements to migrate depends on their mobility.

The order of air migration is known: hydrogen > oxygen > carbon > nitrogen. It shows how quickly atoms of elements can form chemical compounds. O2 is exclusively active, so the migration of most other elements depends on it.

The degree of mobility of water migrants is not always explained by their own properties. Other reasons are also significant. The migration ability of elements is weakened by their absorption by organisms during biogenic accumulation, absorption by soil colloids, that is, the processes of adsorption (Latin - absorption) and precipitation. The migration ability is enhanced by the processes of mineralization of organic compounds, dissolution and desorption (the reverse process of adsorption).

3. Basic patterns of the geographical shell: unity and integrity of the system, rhythm of phenomena, zonality, azonality

The law, as V.I. Lenin wrote, is a relationship between entities. The essence of geographical phenomena has a different nature than the essence, for example, of social or chemical objects, therefore the relations between geographical objects act as specific laws of the geographical form of movement.

The geographical form of movement is a specific interaction between the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, biosphere, on the basis of which the entire diversity of natural complexes is formed and exists.

So, integrity of the geographical envelope- the most important pattern on the knowledge of which the theory and practice of modern environmental management is based. Taking this pattern into account makes it possible to foresee possible changes in the nature of the Earth (a change in one of the components of the geographic envelope will necessarily cause a change in the others); give a geographical forecast of the possible results of human impact on nature; carry out a geographical examination of various projects related to the economic use of certain territories.

The geographic envelope is also characterized by another characteristic pattern - rhythm of development, those. recurrence of certain phenomena over time. In the nature of the Earth, rhythms of different durations have been identified - daily and annual, intra-century and super-secular rhythms. The daily rhythm, as is known, is determined by the rotation of the Earth around its axis. The daily rhythm is manifested in changes in temperature, air pressure and humidity, cloudiness, and wind strength; in the phenomena of ebb and flow in the seas and oceans, the circulation of breezes, the processes of photosynthesis in plants, the daily biorhythms of animals and humans.

The annual rhythm is the result of the movement of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun. These are the change of seasons, changes in the intensity of soil formation and destruction of rocks, seasonal features in the development of vegetation and human economic activity. It is interesting that different landscapes of the planet have different daily and annual rhythms. Thus, the annual rhythm is best expressed in temperate latitudes and very weakly in the equatorial belt.

Of great practical interest is the study of longer rhythms: 11-12 years, 22-23 years, 80-90 years, 1850 years and longer, but, unfortunately, they are still less studied than the daily and annual rhythms.

A characteristic feature of differentiation (spatial heterogeneity, separation) of GOs is zoning (a form of spatial pattern of location), that is, a natural change in all geographical components and complexes along latitude, from the equator to the poles. The main reasons for zonality are the spherical shape of the Earth, the position of the Earth relative to the Sun, and the incidence of solar rays on the Earth's surface at an angle, gradually decreasing on both sides of the equator.

Belts (the highest levels of latitudinal physiographic division) are divided into radiation or solar radiation and thermal or climatic, geographical. The radiation belt is determined by the amount of incoming solar radiation, which naturally decreases from low to high latitudes.

For the formation of thermal (geographic) belts, not only the amount of incoming solar radiation is important, but also the properties of the atmosphere (absorption, reflection, dispersal of radiant energy), the albedo of the green surface, and heat transfer by sea and air currents. Therefore, the boundaries of thermal belts cannot be combined with parallels. - 13 climatic or thermal zones.

A geographic zone is a collection of landscapes within one geographic zone.

The boundaries of geographic zones are determined by the ratio of heat and moisture. This ratio depends on the amount of radiation, as well as the amount of moisture in the form of precipitation and runoff, which is only partially related to latitude. That is why the zones do not form continuous stripes, and their extension along parallels is more a special case than a general law.

Discovery of V.V. Dokuchaev (“Russian Chernozem”, 1883) of geographical zones as integral natural complexes was one of the largest events in the history of geographical science. After this, for half a century, geographers were engaged in concretizing this law: they clarified the boundaries, identified sectors (that is, deviations of the boundaries from the theoretical ones), etc.

In the geographic envelope, in addition to zonal processes associated with the distribution of solar heat on the earth's surface, great importance have azonal processes, depending on processes occurring inside the Earth4. Their sources are: the energy of radioactive decay, mainly of uranium and thorium, the energy of gravitational differentiation generated in the process of reducing the radius of the Earth during the rotation of the Earth, the energy of tidal friction, the energy of interatomic bonds of minerals.

Azonal influences on the geographic envelope are manifested in the formation of high-altitude geographic zones, in mountains that violate latitudinal geographic zoning, and in the division of geographic zones into sectors, and zones into provinces.

The formation of sectoriality and provinciality in landscapes is explained by three reasons: a) the distribution of land and sea, b) the topography of the green surface, c) the composition of rocks.

The distribution of land and sea affects the azonality of GO processes through the degree of continental climate. There are many methods for determining the degree of continental climate. Most scientists define this degree through the annual amplitude of average monthly air temperatures.

The influence of relief, unevenness of the earth's surface and the composition of rocks on landscapes is well known and understandable: at the same latitude in the mountains and on the plain there are forests and steppes; Moraine and karst landscapes are known, their origin being related to the composition of rocks.

4. Differentiation of the geographical envelope. Geographical zones and natural areas

The largest zonal divisions of the geographical envelope are geographical zones. They stretch, as a rule, in the latitudinal direction and, in essence, coincide with climatic zones. Geographic zones differ from each other in temperature characteristics, as well as in the general characteristics of atmospheric circulation. On land the following geographical zones are distinguished:

equatorial - common to the northern and southern hemispheres;

subequatorial, tropical, subtropical and temperate - in each hemisphere;

subantarctic and antarctic belts - in the southern hemisphere.

Belts with similar names have been identified in the World Ocean. The zonality in the ocean is reflected in changes from the equator to the poles in the properties of surface waters (temperature, salinity, transparency, wave intensity, etc.), as well as in changes in the composition of flora and fauna.

Within geographical zones, according to the ratio of heat and moisture, they are distinguished natural areas. The names of the zones are given according to the type of vegetation that predominates in them. For example, in the subarctic zone these are tundra and forest-tundra zones; in the temperate zone - forest zones (taiga, mixed coniferous-deciduous and broad-leaved forests), zones of forest-steppes and steppes, semi-deserts and deserts.

Continuation
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It should be borne in mind that due to the heterogeneity of the relief and the earth's surface, the proximity and distance from the ocean (and, consequently, the heterogeneity of moisture), the natural zones of various regions of the continents do not always have a latitudinal extent. Sometimes they have an almost meridional direction. The natural zones that stretch latitudinally across the entire continent are also heterogeneous. They are usually divided into three segments, corresponding to the central inland and two oceanic sectors. Latitudinal, or horizontal, zoning is best expressed on large plains.

Due to the diversity of conditions created by relief, water, climate and life, the landscape sphere is spatially differentiated more strongly than in the external and internal geospheres (except for the upper part of the earth's crust), where matter in horizontal directions is characterized by relative uniformity.

The uneven development of the geographical envelope in space is expressed primarily in the manifestations of horizontal zoning and altitudinal zonality. Local features (exposure conditions, the barrier role of ridges, the degree of distance from the oceans, the specific development of the organic world in a particular region of the world) complicate the structure of the geographical envelope and contribute to the formation of azonal, intrazonal, provincial differences and lead to uniqueness as individual regions, and their combinations.

5. Altitudinal zones of mountains in different geographical zones

Altitudinal zone landscapes are caused by climate change with altitude: a decrease in temperature by 0.6 ° C for every 100 m of rise and an increase in precipitation up to a certain altitude (up to 2-3 km)5. The change of belts in the mountains occurs in the same sequence as on the plains when moving from the equator to the poles. However, in the mountains there is a special belt of subalpine and alpine meadows, which is not found on the plains. The number of altitude zones depends on the height of the mountains and the characteristics of their geographical location. The higher the mountains and the closer they are located to the equator, the richer their range (set) of altitude zones. The range of altitude zones in the mountains is also determined by the location of the mountain system relative to the ocean. In the mountains located near the ocean, a set of forest belts predominates; Inland (arid) sectors of continents are characterized by treeless high-altitude zones.

6. Physico-geographical zoning as one of the most important problems of physical geography. System of taxonomic units in physical geography

Zoning as a universal method of ordering and systematizing territorial systems is widely used in geographical sciences. The objects of physical-geographical, otherwise landscape, zoning are specific (individual) geosystems at the regional level, or physical-geographical regions. A physical-geographical region is a complex system with territorial integrity and internal unity, which is determined by the common geographical location and historical development, unity of geographical processes and contingency components, i.e. subordinate geosystems of lower rank.

Physiographic regions are integral territorial massifs, expressed on the map by a single contour and having their own names; when classifying, landscapes that are territorially isolated may be included in one group (type, class, species); on the map they are often represented by broken contours.

Each physical-geographical region represents a link in a complex hierarchical system, being a structural unit of regions of higher ranks and an integration of geosystems of lower ranks.

Physico-geographical zoning has significant practical significance and is used for comprehensive accounting and assessment of natural resources, in the development of territorial development plans for the economy, large reclamation projects, etc.

Zoning guidelines focus on the system of taxonomic units. This system is preceded by a list of principles that should serve as the basis for diagnosing regions. Among them, the principles of objectivity, territorial integrity, complexity, homogeneity, genetic unity, and a combination of zonal and azonal factors are most often mentioned.

The formation of physical and geographical regions is a long process. Each region is a product of historical (paleogeographical) development, during which the interaction of various area-forming factors occurred and their ratio could repeatedly change.

We can talk about two primary and independent series of physical-geographical regions - zonal and azonal. Logical subordination between regional taxa of different ranks exists separately within each series.

All known physical-geographical zoning schemes are built on a two-row principle, since zonal and azonal units are distinguished independently.

Three main levels of zoning can be distinguished depending on its detail, i.e. from the final (bottom) stage:

1) the first level includes countries, zones and is limited to derived zones in the narrow sense of the word;

2) the second level includes, in addition to the listed stages, regions, subzones and units derived from them, ending with a subprovince;

3) the third level covers the entire system of divisions up to and including the landscape.

Conclusion

Thus, the geographic envelope should be understood as the continuous shell of the Earth, which includes the lower layers of the atmosphere, the upper part of the lithosphere, the entire hydrosphere and biosphere, which are in contact, interpenetration and interaction. Let us emphasize once again that the geographic envelope is a planetary (largest) natural complex.

Many scientists believe that the thickness of the geographic envelope is on average 55 km. Compared to the size of the Earth, it is a thin film.

The geographical envelope has the most important properties inherent only to it:

a) there is life in it (living organisms);

b) substances are in it in solid, liquid and gaseous states;

c) human society exists and develops in it;

d) it is characterized by general patterns of development.

The integrity of the geographic envelope is the interconnection and interdependence of its components. The proof of integrity is a simple fact - a change in at least one component inevitably entails a change in others.

All components of the geographic shell are connected into a single whole through the circulation of substances and energy, due to which exchange between shells (spheres) takes place. Rhythm is characteristic of living and inanimate nature. Humanity may not have fully studied the rhythm of the geographical envelope.

The issues raised in the introduction have been addressed, and the goal of the work has been achieved.

Bibliography

Grigoriev A. A. Experience in analytical characterization of the composition and structure of the physical-geographical shell of the globe - M.: 1997 - 687 pp.

Kalesnik S.V. General geographical patterns of the Earth. - M.: 1970- 485 p.

Parmuzin Yu.P., Karpov G.V. Dictionary of Physical Geography. - M.: Education, 2003 - 367 p.

Ryabchikov A. M. Structure and dynamics of the geosphere, its natural development and changes by man. -M.: 2001.- 564 p.

Physical geography of continents and oceans: Textbook / Ed. A.M. Ryabchikova. - M.: graduate School, 2002.- 592 p.

Advances in seismology have given humanity more detailed knowledge about the Earth and the layers that make it up. Each layer has its own properties, composition and characteristics that affect the main processes occurring on the planet. The composition, structure and properties of the geographical shell are determined by its main components.

Ideas about the Earth at different times

Since ancient times, people have sought to understand the formation and composition of the Earth. The earliest speculations were entirely unscientific, in the form of myths or religious fables involving gods. During the period of antiquity and the Middle Ages, several theories arose about the origin of the planet and its proper composition. The most ancient theories represented the earth as a flat sphere or cube. Already in the 6th century BC, Greek philosophers began to argue that the earth was actually round and contained minerals and metals. In the 16th century, it was suggested that the Earth consists of concentric spheres and is hollow inside. In the early 19th century, mining and the industrial revolution contributed to the rapid development of geosciences. It was discovered that the rock formations were arranged in order of their formation over time. At the same time, geologists and natural scientists began to realize that the age of a fossil could be determined from a geological point of view.

Study of chemical and geological composition

The structure and properties of the geographic shell differ from other layers in chemical and geological composition, and there are also huge differences in temperature and pressure. Modern scientific understanding of the Earth's internal structure is based on inferences made using seismic monitoring together with measurements of gravitational and magnetic fields. By the early 20th century, the development of radiometric dating, which is used to determine the age of minerals and rocks, made it possible to obtain more accurate data regarding the true date, which is approximately 4-4.5 billion years. The development of modern methods of mining for minerals and precious metals, as well as a growing emphasis on the importance of minerals and their natural distribution, also helped stimulate the development of modern geology, including knowledge of what layers make up the geographic envelope of the earth.

Structure and properties of the geographical shell

The geosphere includes the hydrosphere, descending to a depth of approximately ten kilometers above sea level, the earth's crust and part of the atmosphere, extending to a height of up to 30 kilometers. The greatest distance of the shell varies within forty kilometers. This layer is influenced by both terrestrial and space processes. Substances occur in 3 physical states, and can be composed of the smallest elementary particles such as atoms, ions and molecules, and also include many additional multi-component structures. The structure of the geographical envelope is usually considered in the form of a community of natural and social phenomena. The components of the geographic envelope are presented in the form of rocks in the earth's crust, air, water, soil and biogeocenoses.

Characteristic features of the geosphere

The structure and properties of the geographical shell imply the presence of an important series characteristic features. These include: integrity, cycle of matter, rhythm and constant development.

1. Integrity is determined by the results of the continuous exchange of substances and energy, and the combination of all components connects them into one material whole, where the transformation of any of the links can lead to global changes in all the others.
2. The geographic envelope is characterized by the presence of a cyclical circulation of matter, for example, atmospheric circulation and oceanic surface currents. More complex processes are accompanied by a change in the aggregate composition of matter. In other cycles there is a chemical transformation of matter or the so-called biological cycle.
3. Another feature of the shell is its rhythm, that is, the repetition of various processes and phenomena over time. This is caused largely by the will of astronomical and geological forces. There are 24-hour rhythms (day and night), annual rhythms, and rhythms that occur over the course of a century (for example, 30-year cycles in which there are fluctuations in climate, glaciers, lake levels and river volumes). There are even rhythms that occur over centuries (for example, the alternation of a phase of cool and wet climate with a phase of hot and dry, occurring once every 1800-1900 years). Geological rhythms can last from 200 to 240 million years and so on.
4. The structure and properties of the geographical shell are directly related to the continuity of development.

Continuous development

There are some results and features of continuous development. First, there is a local separation of continents, oceans and seabeds. This distinction is influenced by the spatial features of the geographic structure, including geographic and altitudinal zoning. Secondly, there is polar asymmetry, manifested in the presence of significant differences between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.

This is manifested, for example, in the distribution of continents and oceans, climate zones, the composition of flora and fauna, types and forms of reliefs and landscapes. Thirdly, development in the geosphere is inextricably linked with spatial and natural heterogeneity. This ultimately leads to the fact that different levels of the evolutionary process can be simultaneously observed in different regions. For example, the ancient Ice Age in various parts earth began and ended in different time. In certain natural areas the climate becomes wetter, while in others the opposite is true.

Lithosphere

The structure of the geographic shell includes a component such as the lithosphere. This is the solid, outer part of the earth, extending to a depth of about 100 kilometers. This layer includes the crust and the upper part of the mantle. The strongest and hardest layer of the Earth is associated with such a concept as tectonic activity. The lithosphere is divided into 15 major lithospheres: North American, Caribbean, South American, Scottish, Antarctic, Eurasian, Arabian, African, Indian, Philippine, Australian, Pacific, Juan de Fuca, Cocos and Nazca. The composition of the Earth's geographic envelope in these areas is characterized by the presence various types rocks of the lithospheric crust and mantle. The lithospheric crust is characterized by continental gneiss and oceanic gabbro. Below this boundary, in the upper layers of the mantle, peridotite occurs, the rocks mainly consisting of the minerals olivine and pyroxene.

Component Interaction

The geographical envelope includes four natural geospheres: lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. Water evaporates from the seas and oceans, winds move air currents to land, where precipitation forms and falls, which returns to the world's oceans in various ways. The biological cycle of the plant kingdom consists of the transformation of inorganic matter into organic matter. After the death of living organisms, organic substances return to the earth's crust, gradually transforming into inorganic substances.

The most important properties

Properties of the geographic shell:

1. Possibility of accumulating and converting solar energy.
2. Availability of free energy necessary for large quantity various natural processes.
3. Unique ability to produce biodiversity and serve natural environment for life.
4. The properties of the geographical shell include a huge variety of chemical elements.
5. Energy comes from both space and the deep interior of the earth.

The uniqueness of the geographical shell lies in the fact that organic life arose at the junction of the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere. It was here that the entire human society appeared and is still developing, using for its life activities necessary resources. The geographic envelope covers the entire planet, which is why it is called a planetary complex, which includes rocks in the earth's crust, air and water, soil and enormous biological diversity.

The geographic shell is the totality of all the shells of the Earth: the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere and the biosphere. The total thickness of the geographic envelope is approximately 40 km (some sources call up to 100 km). It is in this shell of the Earth that everything is the necessary conditions for life.

In its development, the geographic envelope went through three main stages:

1) inorganic - before the appearance of life on Earth, at this stage the lithosphere, the primary ocean and the primary atmosphere were formed;

2) organic - the formation and development of the biosphere, which transformed all existing spheres of the Earth;

3) anthropogenic - modern stage development of the geographical shell, when with the advent of human society, an active transformation of the geographical shell and the emergence of a new sphere - the noosphere - the sphere of the mind began.

The geographical envelope, changed by human economic activity, is called the geographical environment. In the near future, the geographical envelope and the geographical environment may become synonymous.
All shells of the Earth are in close relationship with each other. The main source of all processes in the geographical shell is the energy of the Sun, with which two are associated critical process, which create the geographic envelope - the water cycle and the development of life.

The geographical envelope is called the largest natural complex, which is characterized by integrity (due to the circulation of substances and energy), stability, rhythm (daily, annual, perennial rhythms), hierarchy and zonality (natural and climatic zones, natural zones and altitudinal zonation).

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Geographical envelope, its components, relationships between them

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Components of the geographic envelope and their interaction.

Atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere - the four shells of the globe are in complex interaction and interpenetrate each other. All together they make up geographical envelope.

In the geographic shell, life develops, the activity of water, ice, wind manifests itself, soils and sedimentary rocks are formed.

The geographic envelope is an area of ​​complex interpenetration and interaction of cosmic and terrestrial forces. It continues to develop and become more complex as a result of the interaction of living and inanimate nature.

The upper boundary of the geographic envelope corresponds to the tropopause - the transition layer between the troposphere and stratosphere. Above the equator, this layer is located at an altitude of 16-18 km, and at the poles - 8-10 km. At these altitudes, processes generated by the interaction of geospheres fade and cease. There is practically no water vapor in the stratosphere, there is no vertical movement of air, and temperature changes are not associated with the influence of the earth's surface. Life is also impossible here.

The lower boundary on land passes at a depth of 3-5 km, i.e. where the composition and properties of rocks change, there is no liquid water and living organisms.

The geographical shell of the Earth is an integral material system, qualitatively different from other geospheres of the Earth. Its integrity is determined by the continuous interaction of solid, liquid and gaseous, and with the emergence of life, living substances. All components of the geographic shell interact using solar energy coming to the Earth and the energy of the Earth's internal forces.

The interaction between the Earth's geospheres within the geographic envelope occurs as a result of the circulation of substances (water, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, etc.).

All components of the geographic envelope are in complex relationships. A change in one component necessarily causes a change in others.

The rhythm of phenomena in the geographical environment. The geographic envelope of the Earth is constantly changing, and the relationships between its individual components are becoming more complex. These changes occur in time and space. In nature there are rhythms of different durations. Short, daily and annual rhythms are especially important for living organisms. Their periods of rest and activity are consistent with these rhythms. Circadian rhythm(change of day and night) is due to the rotation of the Earth around its axis; annual rhythm(change of seasons) - the revolution of the Earth around the Sun. The annual rhythm is manifested in the existence of periods of rest and vegetation in plants, in the molting and migration of animals, in some cases - in hibernation and reproduction. The annual rhythm in the geographic envelope depends on the latitude of the place: in equatorial latitudes it is less pronounced than in temperate or polar latitudes.

Daily rhythms occur against the background of annual rhythms, and annual rhythms occur against the background of perennial ones. There are also centuries-old, long-term rhythms, for example, climate change (cooling - warming, drying - humidification).

Changes in the geographical envelope also occur as a result of the movement of continents, the advance and retreat of seas, during geological processes: erosion and accumulation, the work of the sea, volcanism. In general, the geographical envelope develops progressively: from simple to complex, from lower to higher.

Zoning and sectoring of the geographical envelope.

The most important structural feature of the geographic shell is its zonality. Zoning Law was formulated by the great Russian natural scientist V.V. Dokuchaev, who wrote that the location of our planet relative to the Sun, its rotation and sphericity affect the climate, vegetation and animals, which are distributed over the earth's surface in the direction from north to south in a strictly defined order .

Zoning is better expressed on vast plains. However, the boundaries of geographical zones rarely coincide with parallels. The fact is that the distribution of zones is influenced by many other natural factors(for example, relief). There may be significant differences within a zone. This is explained by the fact that zonal processes are superimposed on azonal ones, caused by internal factors that are not subject to the laws of zonation (relief, distribution of land and water).

The largest zonal divisions of the geographical envelope are geographical zones, They are distinguished by radiation balance (inflow and outflow of solar radiation) and the nature of the general circulation of the atmosphere. The following geographical zones exist on Earth: equatorial, subequatorial (north and south), tropical (north and south), subtropical (north and south), temperate (north and south), subpolar (subarctic and subantarctic), polar (arctic and antarctic) .

Geographic belts do not have a regular ring shape; they expand, contract, and bend under the influence of continents and oceans, sea currents, and mountain systems.

On continents and oceans, geographical zones are qualitatively different. On the oceans they are well expressed at depths up to 150 m, weakly - up to a depth of 2000 m.

Under the influence of oceans on continents within geographic zones, longitudinal sectors(in temperate, subtropical and tropical zones), oceanic and continental.

On the plains within geographic zones there are natural areas(Fig. 45). In the continental sector of the temperate zone within the East European Plain, these are zones of forests, forest-steppes, steppes, semi-deserts, and deserts. Natural zones are divisions of the earth's surface characterized by similar soil, vegetation and climatic conditions. The main factor in the formation of soil and vegetation cover is the ratio of temperature and moisture.

Rice. 45. Main biozones of the Earth

Vertical zonality. Vertically, natural components change at a different rate than horizontally. As you go up in the mountains, the amount of precipitation and light conditions change. These same phenomena are expressed differently on the plain. Different slope exposures are the reason for unequal distribution of temperature, moisture, and soil and vegetation cover. The reasons for latitudinal zonality and vertical zonality are different: zonality depends on the angle of incidence of sunlight and the ratio of heat and moisture; vertical zonality - from a decrease in temperature with height and the degree of moisture.

Almost every mountainous country on Earth has its own characteristics of vertical zonation. In many mountainous countries, the mountain tundra belt falls out and is replaced by a belt of mountain meadows.

Rice. 46. Changes in vegetation depending on the latitude and altitude of the area

Altitudinal zonation begins with the zone located at the foot of the mountain (Fig. 46). The most important factor in the distribution of belt heights is the degree of moisture.

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§ 40. Cycle of matter and energy in the biosphere§ 42. Natural areas Russia