From the editor. From the Editor The most important characteristics of culture are
"PRSPECT RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND CULTURE OF SPEECH Course of lectures PROSPECT" Moscow UDC 811.161.1:808.5(075.8) BBK 81.2Rus-923 I76 Ippolitova N. A., Knyazeva O. KH, ... "
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ON THE. Ippolitova, O.Yu. Knyazeva, M.R. Savova
RUSSIAN LANGUAGE
AND THE CULTURE OF SPEECH
Lecture course
AVENUE
ON THE. Ippolitova, O.Yu. Knyazeva, M.R. Savova
RUSSIAN LANGUAGE
AND THE CULTURE OF SPEECH
Lecture course
AVENUE"
UDC 811.161.1:808.5(075.8)
BBK 81.2Rus-923
Ippolitova N. A., Knyazeva O. KH, Savova M. R.
I76 Russian language and culture of speech: a course of lectures / ed.
N. A. Ippolitova. - M.: TK Welby, Prospekt Publishing House, 2007. -344 p.
ISBN-10 5-482-01237-9 ISBN-13 978-5-482-01237-6 The manual covers all the topics of the course “Russian language and culture of speech”.
The theoretical foundations of speech culture, the specifics and types of speech activity are considered, and a description of the mechanisms of speech is given. The structure of the presentation of the material will allow you to quickly recall previously learned material in your memory and prepare for an exam or test.
The manual is written in accordance with the state educational standard of higher education of the Russian Federation.
For undergraduates, graduate students and higher education teachers educational institutions.
UDC 811.161.1:808.5(075.8) BBK 81.2Rus-923 Educational publication Ippolitova Natalya Aleksandrovna, Knyazeva Olga Yurievna, Savova Marina Robertovna
RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND CULTURE OF SPEECH
Course of lectures Signed for publication on September 19, 2006. Format /^ Print. l. 21.5. Add. circulation 3000 copies. Order No. 15458 (Kp-sm,.
LLC "TK Velby"
107120, Moscow, Khlebnikov lane, 7, building 2.
Printed at OJSC Smolensk Printing Plant.
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© N. A. Ippolitova, O. Yu. Knyazeva, ISBN-10 5-482-01237-9 M. R. Savova, 2007 ISBN-13 978-5-482-01237-6 © Prospekt Publishing House LLC, 2007 Preface This textbook is addressed to non-philological students studying the course “Russian language and culture of speech” within the framework of the humanities disciplines. The form of presentation of educational material, presented in questions and answers, serves as an additional means of structuring it and is intended to facilitate the work of mastering the theoretical part of the course.
It seems that the main goal of this course is to increase the level of speech culture of future specialists in various fields in the process of mastering and understanding some speech science concepts and improving communicative speech skills.
Implemented in the tutorial new approach to the selection and interpretation of the content of speech science material. This is primarily due to the interpretation of the main concept of the course - “culture” of speech.
The authors of the textbook consider the culture of speech as the culture of speech activity, which allows us to describe, present and analyze in a new way such components of the basic concept as communication, communicative qualities of speech, and the norms of the Russian literary language.
Understanding the culture of speech as a culture of speech activity determines the inclusion in the structure of the manual of such sections as “Ethical and communicative norms”, “Culture of non-verbal speech”, “Text as a unit of communication”. The chapter devoted to the analysis of text as a unit of communication examines the specifics and types of speech activity and gives a brief description of the basic mechanisms of speech, which allows us to show how linguistic and speech, ethical and communicative norms ensure the process of creating and perceiving a text message.
The chapter “Culture of Nonverbal Speech” describes the specifics of gestural and facial behavior in the process of communication, the role of voice and intonation in communication, and emphasizes the need to comply with norms associated with the use of nonverbal means of communication.
Thus, the content of the concept of speech culture is revealed in full, at various levels, taking into account the specifics of all components and means of communication, ensuring its effectiveness and, most importantly, efficiency.
The chapter “Culture of Oral and Written Speech” analyzes the features and properties of oral and written speech, the requirements for oral and written statements, and characterizes some oral and written genres. When selecting and structuring the material in this case, the authors were guided by such criteria as the specificity educational activities students, the characteristics of their speech practice, the nature of the tasks associated with the professional activities of future specialists. This chapter summarizes the material at a new level, revealing the essence of speech culture as a culture of speech activity.
In connection with the above, we emphasize that a person’s social status and his belonging to culture as a whole are manifested primarily in the ability to communicate effectively in the process of life, which presupposes the ability to create and understand texts that are significant for professional activity of people.
The development of this ability begins with the formation of the level of speech culture necessary for the implementation of communication goals, which ensures the development of the most important communicative and speech skills.
These provisions are reflected - directly or indirectly - in the content of the textbook, primarily in the chapters “Culture of Speech” and “Culture of Communication”, as well as in all its other sections.
The theoretical material in the textbook is presented in such a way as to activate the mental activity of students, to lead them to think about the essence of human communication, about the moral and ethical values that underlie it.
It seems that the approach to presenting the fundamentals of speech culture implemented in the textbook will make it possible to successfully solve the most important educational and methodological tasks within the framework of the new university discipline “Russian language and speech culture.”
Introduction How do language and speech relate to each other?
Language and speech are different concepts, but they are not so much opposed as they are closely connected as two sides of the same coin, since speech is always language in action. And although there is no complete coincidence between them, speech rarely does without verbal language, and language functions only in speech.
Consequently, speech and language are closely interconnected. They are so interconnected that sometimes even linguists cannot accurately and unambiguously determine whether they are considering a linguistic or speech phenomenon. For example, concepts such as “linguistic competence” and “linguistic personality” imply that a person meaningfully uses a particular language. This means that these are linguistic concepts, since the basis of human knowledge and skills is language. But if we are dealing with the implementation of linguistic knowledge, and even a specific person, then we are already talking about “linguistic competence”, “linguistic personality” as speech concepts. This is yet another confirmation that language and speech do not exist (with rare exceptions) without each other.
Those who strive to achieve a high level of speech culture, which is impossible without conscious and purposeful mastery of all the components of speech, including language, therefore need to know what connects and what distinguishes language and speech. Culture always presupposes a meaningful attitude towards what needs to be cultivated and what to get rid of. At the same time, “man and culture are inseparable. Each person belongs to a certain culture, a historically established culture, and at the same time he feels that this culture belongs to him. This feeling arises because the fundamental level of culture is formed by language. A native speaker of a language is a person who is not able to change it arbitrarily. And at the same time, language belongs to a person who speaks it fluently, and the beginnings of spiritual creativity are rooted in the free construction of texts.
A text is a reproducible sequence of signs or images that has a meaning that is, in principle, understandable.”
(A. A. Brudny).
Knowledge about language and speech helps first to understand what is meant by speech culture, and based on this understanding, to learn and master ways to achieve a high level in it. But for this you also need to know that language, speech, and speech culture, in turn, are components of culture as a whole. Therefore, we need to consider and reveal all these concepts in the aspect that interests us.
1. LANGUAGE What is language?
Language is a system (from the Greek systema - a whole made up of parts, a combination) of signs, which are assigned content corresponding to their sound appearance.
Let us explain what understanding is put into the key words of this provision.
Language is a system of signs. These are the most important words that characterize a language. A language becomes a language only when behind every sound, word or sentence of this language there is one or another meaning that can give this sign a certain meaning. For example, the sounds [yes] in Russian have meaning - they can, with the appropriate intonation, express agreement.
Language is a system of signs, that is, these units of language are not random, they are interconnected, they form a unity that functions only as a whole. Moreover, each unit of this system represents a particle of the whole. The system of any national language consists of units united at the appropriate levels: phonemes (speech sounds) form the phonemic level, morphemes (word parts) - the morphemic level, words - the lexical level, phrases and sentences - the syntactic level. In turn, each level includes the corresponding units of language: sentences consist of words, words - of morphemes, and morphemes - of phonemes. Between all these and many other units of language, complex relationships arise, which determine the unity and integrity of the entire language system, designed to perform various diverse functions of language.
Moreover, each unit of language has a specific and universally recognized meaning, which allows the use of this language as the main means of sending and receiving information, transmitting and perceiving social experience, preserving national culture which is inseparable from language.
The role of language in the life of every society is enormous, since the emergence and existence of man and his language are inextricably linked with each other. “Language is intended to serve as a tool for human communication, and is designed to be naturally digestible and an adequate means of exchanging information and accumulating it. Its structure is subordinated to the tasks of communication, which consists of transmitting and receiving thoughts about the objects of reality” (Russian language. Encyclopedia).
Human language differs from the so-called animal language, which is a set of signals-reactions to a situation, primarily in that with the help of language people transmit to each other not only concrete, but also abstract information, which is the fruit of thinking, and also in the fact that the main the rules of language use are not only felt by native speakers of that language, but also consciously observed. Thus, a person is distinguished from other living beings not only by the fact that he can think (homo sapiens) and that he is a creative person (homofober), but also by the fact that he is a speaking person (homo eloquens) and a communicating person (homo communicans ).
The human mind and its needs for languages that can most adequately express meaning in all areas of human life have led to the fact that people use both national languages - natural ones, existing since time immemorial:
Russian, English, Japanese, etc., and new ones created by him - artificial ones. Artificial languages are now very diverse, they serve various spheres of life, and are international because they are not limited by national boundaries. Artificial languages include, first of all, international languages created on the basis of natural national languages: Esperanto, Volapuk, etc. In addition, artificial languages are the symbolic languages of science: the languages of mathematics, logic, chemistry, etc. Artificial languages are also the languages of human-machine communication - programming, database management, etc.: Fortran, ALGOL-60, etc.
What functions does a natural national language perform?
The main purpose of language is to serve as the main means of exchanging information (that is, to perform a communicative function). In other words - for communication. We speak to each other in Russian, thus transmitting and receiving a wide variety of information.
The second most important function is to be the main form of reflection of the reality surrounding a person and himself, as well as a means of obtaining new knowledge about reality (that is, performing a cognitive, or cognitive, function).
Thus, any natural human language is intended primarily for communication and knowledge of reality. Consequently, based on knowledge about language as a system, in this course we will study what rules for using language help it most effectively fulfill its main functions in our speech.
The main functions of language also include emotional (to be one of the means of expressing feelings and emotions) and metalinguistic (to be a means of studying and describing language). The emotional function of language is very important for a person, since it helps him express his inner world, his impressions, sensations, assessments, etc. most adequately, especially since most statements in a particular language contain not only logical, but also emotional information . The metalinguistic function plays a lesser role in everyday life, but this book and other written and oral texts about language perform to a large extent precisely this function.
As part of the main functions, others are also distinguished. Thus, the implementation of the communicative function is facilitated by the actual (contact-establishing), assimilation of information, influence, as well as the cumulative function (creation, storage and transmission of information). In addition, language also has an aesthetic function, which assumes that speech itself and its fragments can be perceived as beautiful or ugly, that is, as an aesthetic object, and an axiological function (evaluation function), etc.
And all these functions are united by the fact that language is intended and exists not for an individual, but for a specific society, in which this language acts as a common code with the help of which people are able to understand each other.
However, language performs these functions only when it is used in the process of speech to create an utterance. Thus, language is intended to perform these functions, but language itself, without the efforts of the speaker or writer, cannot fulfill this role, like its other functions.
What is the value of language for society?
Language itself exists regardless of anyone, someone’s consciousness, or whether it is used at all. The language may even be “dead”, that is, one that is not spoken (for example, Latin). The form of existence of language is very conditional, abstract, since it is recorded in dictionaries, reference books, and in the minds of people, but it reveals itself in speech and only through it fulfills its communicative purpose.
An important property of a language is that it is relatively stable, it has a basic part that is almost not subject to change, and a periphery that gradually changes (mainly in vocabulary). This stability is very important, because language is something common that connects people and is the common property of society (it is no coincidence that the presence of a single language or languages is considered a condition for the existence of a nation). In addition, the stability of the language, the fact that the language does not depend on specific communication situations and the meanings of words in it are strictly defined and recorded in dictionaries, is intended to ensure mutual understanding between all speakers (and writers) of this language.
All these properties of language explain why any society considers language as a significant value, since language does not exist outside of society, and society does not exist without language. Suffice it to recall the legend of the Tower of Babel, where people were deprived of a common language and they lost their community, even though they had a common goal.
In addition, language has become the key to the unity of society, not only as a means of communication, but also as a means of creating, storing and accumulating information, which allows us to feel and continue the connection between different generations and people of different eras.
Language has a pronounced social character in all its functions, properties, internal organization, and the laws by which it exists and develops. Language is not only a system of linguistic means that act as unique resources for the expression of meaning, but it is also a system of rules for the use of these means. And in all these respects, language is a cultural phenomenon.
The national language as a single developed system of signs reflects the level of development of the people, conveys the characteristics of its culture (both material and spiritual), but at the same time, the diversity of the various spheres in which it functions.
It distinguishes such varieties as literary language, territorial (local) and social (professional, argot, etc.) dialects, vernacular, etc.
What is literary language?
The highest, written form of the national language is the literary language. Literary language is the main form of language, which is characterized by processing, multifunctionality, reflects the stylistic features of a particular sphere of communication and, which should be especially noted, has normalization. This is how the literary language differs from all other varieties of language.
At the same time, the literary language covers all main spheres of communication: everyday (everyday), scientific, official business, public and the sphere of verbal art. And in all these areas, the literary language not only ensures mutual understanding, but also increases the general level of culture, helps to achieve greater efficiency of speech through the use of both general literary and language means specific to this area. This is reflected in the extensive system of functional styles of the Russian language, corresponding to the main areas of communication.
Why then is the main form of the Russian language called the literary language?
Literary language does not mean “language fiction" Literary language covers not only the sphere of the art of speech, but also all others, and it is called so because its creation is based on the selection of all the best that is in the language and that needs to be preserved and developed, that is, the culture of the language. What exactly deserves cultivation is a difficult question, in the solution of which both linguistic knowledge itself and tongue taste, linguistic flair, which among all native speakers primarily distinguishes writers who are the most demanding in selecting the most accurate, capacious and euphonious words, expressions and speech structures. In the works of writers and poets, therefore, the aesthetic function of language is embodied to a greater extent, and these works themselves become unique guidelines for what heights can be achieved with the help of language. But in order for a literary language to become the basis of a national language, the main thing is not the aesthetic function itself, but those basic ways that ensure it, that is, correctness (normalization), thanks to which the literary language is distinguished from the non-literary.
Why are language norms needed?
The unity and stability of the language is supported by an extensive system of norms - rules and regulations that regulate the main cases of use of certain linguistic units or their forms. These are the norms for pronouncing words (spelling), writing words (spelling), placing punctuation marks (punctuation), etc.
The normalization of language is a sign of its high development and the guarantee of its stability, integrity and general intelligibility, as a result of which the language even better ensures mutual understanding between the people who speak it. At the same time, both the language itself and speech as a whole become a value and a corresponding attitude towards them arises - as a value, and a value attitude is already a sign of culture. Since culture has a selection mechanism and strives to preserve the best, it is always inherent in evaluativeness. Regarding normalization, the main criteria for assessing facts of language are “correct”/“incorrect”.
Thus, norms are a mechanism for maintaining the stability of a language and the key to its proper development in the future.
In turn, compliance with norms affects the personality of the person speaking this language. Professor-linguist Yu. N. Karaulov, on this basis, proposed studying linguistic personality, by which He understands “the set of abilities and characteristics of a person that determine the creation and perception of speech works (texts) that differ
a) the degree of structural and linguistic complexity, b) the depth and accuracy of the reflection of reality, c) a certain target orientation.” Thus, when considering the problem of linguistic personality, the problems of language become inseparable from the problem of using and mastering the language. At the same time, the use of language means any level of knowledge of the language and its means, and language proficiency presupposes only a high level of development of the linguistic personality, in which a person speaking a given language effectively and expediently uses various means of language to create effective texts, that is, in his speech.
So, language is a branched system of signs, in which there are various means for performing all its functions.
2. SPEECH
What is called speech and how does speech differ from language?
The word “speech” denotes a specific human activity, therefore, to characterize both its sides, this word in linguistics is used in two main meanings: speech refers to the process of speaking (orally) or writing (written), and those speech works (statements, oral and written texts), which represent the audio or graphic product (result) of this activity.
We began the introduction to this textbook with the fact that language and speech are closely interrelated, since speech is language in action, and that in order to achieve a high culture of speech, language and speech must be distinguished.
First of all, because language is a system of signs, and speech is an activity that occurs as a process and is presented as a product of this activity. And although speech is constructed in one language or another, this is the most important difference, which for various reasons determines others.
Speech is a way of realizing all the functions of language, primarily communicative. Speech arises as a necessary response to certain events of reality (including speech events), therefore, unlike language, it is deliberate and focused on a specific goal.
Speech, first of all, is material - in oral form it sounds, and in written form it is recorded using appropriate graphic means (sometimes different from the given language, for example, in another graphic system (Latin, Cyrillic, hieroglyphic writing) or using icons, formulas, drawings, etc.). Speech depends on specific situations, unfolds in time and is realized in space. For example, your answer to one of the subjects you are studying will be structured differently depending on how familiar you are with the material, how difficult it is, how long you can speak or how much time you have to prepare, in what room and at what distance from the addressee of the speech you will pronounce it, etc. Speech is created by a specific person in specific conditions, for a specific person (audience), therefore, it is always specific and unique, because even if it is reproduced with the help of certain other records, circumstances change and the same thing happens, about which they usually say: “You cannot step into the same river twice.” Moreover, theoretically, speech can last indefinitely (with or without interruptions). In fact, our entire life, from the time we begin to speak until we say the last word, is one big speech in which the circumstances, addressee, subject of speech, form (oral or written), etc. change. but we continue to talk (or write). And with our last word, speech (only written or not our oral one) will continue.
In this regard, speech unfolds linearly, that is, we pronounce one sentence after another in a certain sequence. The process of oral speech is characterized by the fact that speech proceeds at a certain (sometimes changing) pace, with greater or lesser duration, degree of loudness, articulatory clarity, etc. Written speech can also be fast or slow, clear (intelligible) or unclear (unintelligible) ), more or less voluminous, etc. That is, the materiality of speech can be illustrated with various examples. Language, in contrast to speech, is considered to be ideal, that is, it exists outside of speech as a whole only in the minds of those who speak this language or study this language, and also as parts of this whole - in various dictionaries and reference books.
Speech is, as a rule, the activity of one person - the speaker or the writer, therefore it is a reflection of the various characteristics of this person. Consequently, speech is initially subjective, because the speaker or writer himself selects the content of his speech, reflects in it his individual consciousness and individual experience, while the language, in the system of meanings it expresses, records the experience of the collective, the “picture of the world” of the people speaking it. In addition, speech is always individual, since people never use all the means of language and are content with only part of the language means, choosing the most suitable ones in accordance with their level of language knowledge and the conditions of a particular situation. As a result, the meanings of words in speech may diverge from those that are strictly defined and recorded in dictionaries. In speech, situations are possible in which words and even individual sentences receive a completely different meaning than in language, for example, with the help of intonation. Speech can also be characterized by indicating the psychological state of the speaker, his communicative task, attitude towards the interlocutor, and sincerity.
On what grounds can speech be described and analyzed?
The difference between language and speech can be seen, as in a kind of cross-section, in the comparison of a sentence as a unit of language and a statement as a unit of speech. M. M. Bakhtin distinguishes these concepts as follows: “The sentence as a unit of language has a grammatical nature, grammatical boundaries, grammatical completeness and unity. (Considered as a whole statement and from the point of view of this whole, it acquires stylistic properties).” “The sentence as a unit of language... is not delimited on both sides by a change of speech subjects, it does not have direct contact with reality (with an extra-verbal situation) and a direct relationship to other people’s statements, it does not have semantic usefulness and the ability to directly determine the response position of another speaker , that is, to evoke a response.” In turn, an utterance differs from a sentence in that it is always associated with a speech situation, focused not only on someone else’s utterance, but also on the presence of the addressee and his active response position; the utterance also has semantic completeness and clearly defined boundaries between utterances of other speech subjects.
In addition, speech is not limited only to linguistic means. The composition of speech means also includes those that are non-linguistic (non-verbal, or non-verbal): voice, intonation, gestures, facial expressions, posture, position in space, etc.
All these differences between speech and language relate primarily to speech as the process of using language, therefore, although with a stretch, they are grounds for their opposition, since in this regard, the creation of speech as a process proceeds largely in stages and partially coincides with the boundaries of the largest unit of language : with sentence boundaries. If we talk about speech as a result of this process, that is, as a text, then the description of speech at this level, in principle, cannot have common criteria with language, since they are completely inapplicable to language.
Namely:
Speech can be external (spoken or written) and internal (not voiced or recorded for others). We use inner speech as a means of thinking or internal speaking (speech minus sound), and also as a way of remembering.
Speech-utterance takes place in certain speech genres, for example, writing, speaking, saying goodbye, etc.
Speech-text should be constructed in accordance with one or another functional style: scientific, official business, journalistic, colloquial or artistic.
Speech as a text reflects reality and can be considered from the point of view of its truth and falsity (true / partially true / false).
Aesthetic (beautiful / ugly / ugly) and ethical assessments (good / bad), etc. are applicable to speech-text.
Thus, we see that all the functions of language are realized in speech. And language turns out to be the main, but not the only means of its creation. Speech is always the result of the creative activity of an individual, therefore it is necessary to approach analysis, evaluation and methods of creating speech in a completely different way than to language. This is especially important when considering speech from the point of view of its culture.
3. CULTURE
What is culture?
The word culture itself originated in Ancient Rome. “As you know, the word “culture” has as its original Latin “cultura”, which meant “to cultivate” (land), and “to improve”, and “to honor.” In the later use of the word “culture” these shades were preserved, but it is curious that originally “culture”
meant a change in nature in the interests of man, or more precisely, the cultivation of the land. And in parallel, the metaphor used by Cicero arises - “culture (improvement) of the soul,” “spiritual culture,” writes A. A. Brudny.
What is the meaning of this concept now?
In the most general sense, it includes all the achievements of human society in various areas of life, and a high level of development of any particular branch of activity, and enlightenment, education, erudition, and the presence of living conditions that meet the needs of an enlightened person, and the breeding, cultivation of any or plants.
In other words, culture is inseparable from the process of choosing something most successful in any area, caring for it, cultivating it, bringing it to a high level of quality in the pursuit of perfection. This process presupposes the awareness and purposefulness of all relevant actions, the development and storage of techniques and methods - the rules of effective activity.
In modern research on culture, “a well-founded idea of culture is gradually being formed as a certain form of human relations, objectified by values” (A. A. Brudny). Or: “Culture is a universal form of simultaneous communication and existence of people of different cultures, each of which is a universal form of simultaneous communication and existence of people... and in this communication of cultures, communication of individuals occurs” (V.S. Bibler).
This means that culture is a process of special communication between people, the facts of culture (in which scientific discoveries, everyday objects, works of art, etc. are recognized as values) are the result of this activity and a means for the emergence of the process of interpretation and understanding of these facts and the beginning a new response process of creating your own “replica”
in this never-ending process.
What are the most important characteristics of culture?
The most important characteristics of culture are:
1) the significance of all its constituent elements;
2) the dialogue nature of the process and the focus on dialogue of its products (cultural facts);
3) the existence of many cultures and types of cultures that enter into dialogue;
4) its continuity as a process;
5) extensive criteria for assessing cultural facts;
6) mechanisms for protecting cultural facts, etc.
All these properties of culture are, in turn, closely interrelated. Their interdependence can be outlined in a dotted manner as follows.
Culture in this understanding is “the expression of human relations in objects, actions, words to which people attach meaning, meaning, and value. Pay special attention to the essential side of cultural phenomena: the connection between them is the connection between their meanings. The essence of cultural phenomena is that they have meaning for people; and what matters to people gradually turns into a sign,” this is how A. A. Brudny explained this property of culture.
Any sign, in turn, is aimed at understanding, therefore it needs another subject, different from itself, who will “decode” the meaning of this sign in the process of understanding it (at one level or another) and react to it in some way. This is how the dialogical nature of culture reveals its essence.
Naturally, dialogue is possible only between subjects who are different in some way, therefore, two opposite, but mutually conditioned processes arise in culture: firstly, awareness of one’s individuality, and secondly, isolation, delimitation of oneself in one’s integrity and dissimilarity from others , from other, different cultures.
These processes, combined with dialogue, make culture continuous.
At the same time, the iconicity and differences of different cultures make it necessary for a dialogue to arise between them to identify and designate evaluation criteria different sides facts of culture, that is, the creation of a mechanism for selecting what should be cultivated and what should be gotten rid of.
This, in turn, helps to understand what and how needs to be protected and preserved.
As a result of this kind of mechanisms, culture is always connected not so much with the material world as with the spiritual. And it has not only a communication, but also a symbolic, symbolic nature.
This means that the meaning of distinguishing culture from non-culture is that any fact of culture, even physical or material, is filled with meaning, filled with an element of spirituality - those associations, those events with which it is connected and of which it is a sign.
Culture gives each sign a context - that broader frame in which any fact of culture is perceived not in isolation, but in connection with the rest. These relationships also imply cause-and-effect relationships, where you ask the question “Why?” and look for an answer to it - that is, interpret the facts of reality. These relationships become a source of comparisons, juxtapositions, analogies - everything that underlies both logical and figurative perception of the world.
All these initially scattered meanings require ordering. Therefore, structuring is an essential part of culture, and this, according to the law precisely formulated by Yu. M. Lotman, leads to an increase in information precisely due to the increment of meanings. Structuring is a way of adding additional meaning by updating familiar logical connections and associations. The history of civilizations shows that the development of culture was largely due to the development of coding systems and structuring of meanings. And now the inclusion of an element in a certain system also leads to a significant increase in its information potential.
Thus, any culture is multi-layered and diverse, and at the same time it necessarily presupposes the organization and orderliness of all objects included in it, that is, structuring, which leads to an increase in information due to the increase in meaning. This allows the culture to accumulate rich, diverse potential and constantly develop.
In what forms does culture exist?
Culture has three forms: physical, material and spiritual. Every fact of culture combines them all. What exactly is meant by each form of culture, Yu. V. Rozhdestvensky described as follows:
“Physical culture is the preparation of a person for any type of activity, consisting in the development of motor-coordinating abilities, the inclinations of mental activity, ethical and aesthetic ideas, as well as the ability for introspection, self-preservation, procreation....
Material culture is a system of material objects that form the artificial (technical) human environment, selected for eternal storage and designed to serve people as examples of technical creativity....
Spiritual culture is a collection of facts of spiritual social life that characterize the moral, emotional, mental development of humanity, the development of styles and stylistic needs of people, their systematization and dissemination through all types of education and enlightenment, works of art, crafts, literary monuments, etc. The content of spiritual culture are morality and ethics, examples of learning and wisdom, achievements of scientific and technical, legal and medical, economic and sociological theories, works of art, achievements of state and military, philosophical and religious thought" (according to Yu. V. Rozhdestvensky. Glossary of terms) .
Thus, even physical culture, not to mention its material and spiritual forms, presupposes a spiritual and intellectual beginning, introspection and self-improvement, etc.
Therefore, culture is always associated with activity - be it physical, material or spiritual culture. Culture is both a process of activity and its result - a certain product that arises as a result of this activity. But, unlike non-culture, activity is always conscious and purposeful. In addition, the combination in each fact of culture of all three of its forms presupposes ethical and aesthetic components as integral in each of them.
What types of culture are there?
Culture always goes beyond the domain of one person.
Therefore, the main form of culture is spiritual and therefore culture always belongs to a person or many people.
Accordingly, three types of culture are distinguished:
The culture of society is the entire totality of cultural facts, the exclusive possession or use of which neither a private individual nor any individual group has the right to claim;
The culture of a collective (family, company, organization, etc.) is the experience of the activity of this collective, recorded in signs and material objects, and is the direct source of the activity of this collective;
Personal culture consists of knowledge of cultural facts, work skills in one’s profession, the ability to use culture and personal experience. Personal culture serves both as a source of personal achievements and as a source of creating a culture of a team and a culture of society (according to Yu. V. Rozhdestvensky. Glossary of terms).
Despite the fact that there is also a personal culture, “culture, first of all, is a collective concept. An individual can be a carrier of culture, can actively participate in its development, however, by its nature, culture, like language, is a social phenomenon, that is, social. Consequently, culture is something common to a collective - a group of people living simultaneously and connected by a certain social organization. It follows from this that culture is a form of communication between people and is possible only in the group in which people communicate” (Italics by the author. - Lotman Yu. M. “Conversations about Russian Culture”). Accordingly, the culture of communication presupposes the highest level of communication, corresponding to all three forms of culture.
Moreover, culture is not only something common to any group, but culture is also the creator of both this group and the common ground that unites it: “the main “work” of culture... - in structural organization the world surrounding a person. Culture is a generator of structure, and in this way it creates a social sphere around a person, which, like the biosphere, makes possible further life, though not organic, but social” (Yu. M. Lotman).
This means that the three types of culture do not contradict each other, but only complement and mutually enrich. At the same time, the social nature of culture necessarily presupposes that individual culture is possible only when it is perceived as an element, part of the general culture (of a team or society as a whole), as a personal contribution to it by someone, but not as a manifestation of antagonism to it, since culture is initially characterized by traditions and continuity.
What determines the development of culture?
One of the most important concepts that convey the essence of culture and become a mechanism for its continuity is memory. Memory in culture implies the continuity of the moral, intellectual, spiritual life of a person, society and humanity. Memory, on the one hand, records facts, events and cultural achievements and thereby preserves them; on the other hand, forward movement and improvement are impossible without developed memory, and culture is not only the fruit of human development, but also its engine.
An important property of culture is the interaction between its various types. Academician D.S. Likhachev characterized these processes as follows, considering the corresponding levels of memory: “Personal culture is formed as a result of the active memory of one person, family culture - as a result of family memory, culture of the people - people's memory. But we have long entered an era when the common culture of an individual, society and people requires the active memory of all humanity. And just as the culture of a family does not destroy, but improves personal culture, so the culture of all humanity improves, elevates, and enriches the culture of each individual nation.” (D.S. Likhachev). And at the same time, the achievements of an individual are not opposed to the culture of the collective and the whole society, but, being prepared by them, in turn, enrich them.
This mutual influence and mutual enrichment of various components of culture is determined by its basic properties, among which Yu.M.
Lotman identified the following contradictions, which are the driving force for the development of culture:
1. On the one hand, the orderliness of both the external and internal organization of culture. On the other hand, dynamism: the need for constant self-renewal, to remain oneself and become different, constitutes one of the main working mechanisms of culture.
2. On the one hand, the unity of a certain culture, on the other, the multiplicity of cultures and components within a single culture.
As a result of these contradictions, culture is governed by the principle of alternativeness, when the choice and combination of various elements provide inexhaustible opportunities for its development.
It is important that opportunities for development are provided not only by the spiritual form of culture, but also by the material.
Why and how is it important to preserve culture?
Dialogue between cultures of different peoples and different generations is often possible only due to the fact that certain cultural facts have been recorded and preserved. Literature, architecture, sculpture, painting, music - all these are stopped moments.
And they all represent a kind of symbolic “code”, 2* 19 which sometimes, outside of the meanings that the authors put into them, and without the context, cannot be adequately deciphered and understood. And speech occupies a special place in this series, because only it is capable of preserving and transmitting spiritual information in the most adequately decipherable form. Therefore, written speech is not just a form of speech existence, but a form of cultural life.
For example, the development of culture, associated with an increase in the volume of its facts, is also stimulated by “various technologies for creating speech:
Oral speech;
Written (handwritten) speech;
Printed speech;
Speech on electronic media.
Each historical layer of culture differs from another in that more advanced speech technology makes it possible to accommodate a larger amount of information about cultural facts in the memory of an individual, a group and society.
(according to Yu. V. Rozhdestvensky. Dictionary of terms).
That is why written texts play a decisive role in the development of culture.
Another important aspect of culture is the need to preserve it. We are talking about preserving not only individual facts of culture, but also its boundaries, as well as mechanisms of reproduction and development. Therefore, the special task of culture must be recognized as the education of culture both of society as a whole and of its individual representatives. And the culture of society as a whole is achieved by increasing the culture of the individuals within it. Education of culture is aimed at respectful and widespread use of the experience of social development, collection, storage, classification of all facts of culture and the creation of effective cultural use.
What is basic personality culture?
IN Lately they started talking about elementary level personality culture - the basic culture of the individual, that is, the necessary minimum of a person’s general abilities, his value ideas and qualities, without which both socialization and the optimal development of genetically given personality talents are impossible (O. S. Gazman). The main components of the basic culture of the individual are also identified: a complex of knowledge, skills, qualities, habits, and value orientations. This assumes, first of all, knowledge of the basic facts of the culture of a particular people or world culture.
In relation to speech culture, this especially concerns knowledge of the so-called precedent texts (the Bible, myths, peaks of world literature, etc.), since “knowledge of precedent texts is an indicator of belonging to a given era and its culture, while ignorance of them, on the contrary, is a prerequisite for exclusion from the corresponding culture” (Yu. N. Karaulov).
A cultured person is always an educated person. But, in essence, culture does not imply learning, but the education of the individual. And it is no coincidence that both these words differ in meaning. In this respect, a trained person differs from an educated person in that he has not received knowledge, but the ability to obtain, apply and transfer this knowledge. He didn’t learn someone’s thoughts, but learned to think himself. He can not only repeat who said what and how to speak in a given situation, but he is able to create his own speech. All this can be formulated this way: a cultured, educated person is a person who not only knows and can do a lot, but, above all, is creative.
Therefore, personal culture necessarily presupposes the mastery of not only some necessary knowledge, skills and abilities, but also cultural values personally mastered in activity. Consequently, the basis of education is the process of cognition - finding relationships between various phenomena and structuring them. And then the structure suggests gaps - white spots that also require filling. Thus, knowledge, as a component of culture, is also dialogical, because there is a movement from ignorance to incomplete knowledge, and then to relatively complete knowledge.
Culture at its most general view presupposes the presence of individuality in a person and the desire to demonstrate this individuality. And at the same time, recognition by this individuality of the right of other people to their individuality and respect for this individuality. Not the isolation of the individual, but the realization that individuality is separateness within the whole - society.
This presupposes the ability to look at the situation from the perspective of another, to understand his train of thoughts, his feelings, etc. All this again manifests itself in dialogical activity, namely, in the process of communication. The general culture of society, the collective, and the individual is unthinkable without a culture of communication.
Thus, culture is a system of human achievements in all sectors of life, which appeared and is developing thanks to the purposeful and conscious activity of man and society as a whole in the material and spiritual spheres. This activity is of a unifying communicative nature, aimed at achieving the highest level of quality, and therefore is accompanied by a system of restrictions, thanks to which there is a targeted selection of those worthy for continuation and development.
Chapter 1. Communication culture
1. WHAT IS COMMUNICATION
What is the meaning of the concept of “communication”?
Communication permeates all spheres of human activity, therefore it is studied by many sciences, within each of which scientists approach the phenomenon of communication from their own positions. Sociologists, psychologists, philosophers, linguists understand by communication “the process of developing new information and what develops their community” (M. S. Kagan) or “a special form of interaction between people,” etc.
Otherwise it can not be. Because, first of all, “what people have in common is the reality ahead of them” (N.I. Zhinkin). This common reality includes a common language, a common memory, common concepts, common mechanisms of thinking developed as a result of a common culture, and other things, thanks to which communication becomes not only necessary, but also possible.
Psychologists distinguish three levels of analysis of the structure of communication:
1. Communication of an individual as an aspect of his lifestyle (macro level).
2. Individual acts of communication, individual contacts (conversation, argument, etc.) - meso level.
3. Individual elements of the act of communication (means of expression) - micro level.
In this chapter we will look at communication at the macro level.
Academician D.S. Likhachev very accurately expressed the essence of communication: “By communicating, people create each other.” These words emphasize precisely the reciprocity of people’s influence on each other and the need for each other to realize their individuality and for the development of each. This approach and this understanding emphasizes the conditionality of communication as the main element of culture.
This also explains the main means of communication - speech. Consequently, communication is a real activity that unfolds procedurally, that is, in the same way as speech, and proceeds primarily in the form of speech (in its verbal and non-verbal components).
Communication is an activity. At the same time, the activity is not only the communication that occurs when jointly solving any substantive and practical problems, but also spiritual communication, during which spiritual and informational interaction occurs. Communication as an activity requires conscious goal setting, selection of optimal means to achieve set goals, constant monitoring of the actions of partners and each making the necessary adjustments to their own behavior and, of course, responsibility for the result of this activity. The process of communication always has a spiritual component of content as the consciousness of the need to interact with another person, and therefore the need for him as a partner in achieving a common goal. This need turns into a specific attitude, that is, into a readiness to coordinate one’s personal behavior with the behavior of a partner, into a desire for community, cooperation, etc.
What are the main functions of communication?
The main functions of communication are formulated by different scientists taking into account the science within which they consider communication, therefore, from different positions. We present the classification of psychologist A. A. Brudny, who deals with issues of understanding, since this approach, in our opinion, allows us to most adequately consider communication in the aspect of culture.
A. A. Brudny identifies four main functions of communication:
1. Instrumental, that is, communication as an auxiliary component of joint objective activity (for example, car repair or cleaning).
2. Syndicative (associations), when communication involves the creation of unity of the participants who have entered into it.
3. The function of self-expression, which in its essence is focused on mutual understanding and contact.
4. Translational function - transfer of specific methods of activity, evaluation criteria and programs (for example, training).
This means that to implement any communication function, a subject is required who carries out this communication.
In turn, within the framework of communication as an activity, the person himself, as the subject of communication, also performs various functions:
communicative (ensuring relationship), informational (mutual expression), cognitive (mutual cognition), emotive (experience of relationships), conative (mutual manifestation, management), creative (mutual influence, transformation).
Thus, communication satisfies (should satisfy) various needs of the individual. These needs are common to all people, since man is primarily a social creature. All these needs are fundamentally cultural in nature: they are associated with values and value-based attitudes towards oneself and others, with dialogicity, with the processes of cognition and self-knowledge, with creative activity, etc. But, depending on the level of culture of a particular person, those or other social needs receive paramount importance.
Communication is also one of the main conditions for the existence of culture. It is organic to culture in that in the process of interaction, as well as in culture as a whole, there is a clash of contradictory tendencies between unification and isolation, socialization and individualization, which also becomes the driving force for the development and enrichment of all participants in communication. “Only in communication, in the interaction of man with man, is the man in man revealed both for others and for himself” (M. M. Bakhtin).
Consequently, recognition of the need for the “other” for the existence of the individual gives communication a value-based character and makes communication part of the culture as a whole.
What are the main goals of communication?
The main goals of communication are related to the direction and characteristics of the interaction between communicants. Philosopher
M. S. Kagan proposed the following classification of communication goals:
1) the purpose of communication is outside the interaction of subjects;
2) the purpose of communication lies within itself;
3) the purpose of communication is to introduce the partner to the experience and values of the initiator of communication;
4) the purpose of communication is to introduce the initiator himself to the values of the partner.
The first goal is solved mainly in the process of joint actions of communication partners. The second consists mainly in self-knowledge and self-expression through dialogical activity and mutual understanding of the participants in communication. The third and fourth goals speak for themselves - this is, first of all, the value-based interaction of partners, in which one of them takes on the role of initiator.
All these goals are achieved only in the process of dialogue, therefore, according to M. M. Bakhtin, “in the process of real speech activity, people become “speech subjects,” and their verbal interaction is not an exchange of monologues, but a dialogue, that is, oriented towards each other statements." At the same time, dialogue is understood not only as a form of speech that involves a change of speech subjects, but broadly, that is, as a collision, interaction of different points of view, different positions, different minds, different understandings, different interpretations, etc.
2. COMMUNICATION AND COMMUNICATION
What is the difference between the terms “communication” and “communication”?
Dialogue, on the one hand, and the methods of its implementation, on the other, in real communication can differ significantly. This difference is largely reflected in the shades of meaning that the words “communication” and “communication” have. In scientific literature, both words are used as synonyms. At the same time, the word “communication” is more often used in linguistic works, and “communication” in psychological studies. What are the specific meanings of each of these terms and which of them is more appropriate when analyzing speech from the point of view of its culture?
Communication is an information connection between a subject and a particular object.
Speech communication (from the Latin communicatio - I make it common, I connect, I communicate) is one of the meanings that the word “communication” has in modern Russian.
Communication refers to both means of communication (for example, water communication), and forms of communication (telegraph, radio, telephone), and communication, communication between people for transmitting and receiving information, and mass communication - the process of communicating information using technical means - mass communication media (print, radio, cinema, television) to numerically large, dispersed audiences.
Communication (according to S.I. Ozhegov’s Dictionary) - mutual relationships, business or friendly connections.
These concepts are united and made synonymous by speech, which connects people and serves as the main means of transmitting information in its various types and forms. Therefore, we will consider the concepts of “communication” and “communication” only in relation to speech, to a speech situation.
In this sense, “communication” refers to the transmission of speech information from the sender to the recipient and the reception of this information by the recipient from the sender. And by “communication” is verbal interaction between people.
Can we say that, in relation to speech, the concepts of “communication” and “communication” are completely identical? Yes and no.
If for us the features of a particular communication situation, one or another relationship between those communicating are unimportant, then we will use these terms as complete synonyms. But if these features are important to take into account for a full description of the process, then it is necessary to keep in mind significant differences in the meanings of these terms (these differences were analyzed by M.S.
Kagan in the book “The World of Communication”):
1. “Communication” in its direct meaning is exclusively an information process addressed to a person, an animal, a machine (can be carried out in artificial languages), and “communication” is always two-layered (it has both a practical and spiritual (informational) nature).
2. “Communication” presupposes an information connection between a subject and a particular object. In this case, the role of the object can be either a person, an animal or a machine. "Communication"
but it is possible only between subjects, that is, between people who feel their individuality and uniqueness.
3. “Communication” is primarily the process of transmitting information. In this regard, he is one-sided and monological.
“Communication” is a process of interaction, it is two-way and dialogical (according to M. S. Kagan. The World of Communication).
Thus, the basis for distinguishing shades of meaning of the words “communication” and “communication” are the features of the relationship between the participants in this process.
What types of relationships between participants in the interaction during the speech process underlie communication and communication?
The features of the relationship between participants in the interaction during the speech process have three main types. MM.
Bakhtin described them as “three types of relationships:
1. Relations between objects: between things, between physical phenomena, chemical phenomena, causal relations, mathematical relations, logical relations, linguistic relations, etc.
2. Relationship between subject and object.
3. Relations between subjects are personal, personalistic relations: dialogical relations between statements, ethical relations, etc. This also includes all sorts of personalized semantic connections. Relationships between consciousnesses, truths, mutual influences, discipleship, love, hatred, lies, friendship, respect, reverence, trust, mistrust, etc.
In other words, schematically and conditionally it can be assumed that if the basis of the relationship between participants in the information exchange process is the “subject-object” relationship (which means that it is not communication that occurs, but communication), then even if this object is a person, it acts exclusively in the role of an “objective” recipient of some ready-made, general information not personally adapted for him. And, since this recipient in this sense is only an object, it means that he does not have personal traits, therefore, he perceives the information “objectively,” that is, it is not distorted by his personal interpretations.” At the same time, please note that in communication there is a sender of information and its recipient, we are dealing with a unidirectional process, information flows only in one direction, and - according to the laws established by the theory of communication - the amount of information decreases during its movement from the sender to to the recipient (or, in the absence of losses during transmission, the information remains unchanged). (For more details, see the already mentioned book by M. S. Kagan.) But most likely, there will be no response information from such an “object” or it will also be “objectified.”
If communication occurs, which is based on the relationships between subjects, then the situation becomes fundamentally different. Each subject is always unique, and therefore each requires individual approach to yourself. According to the laws of the functioning of culture, it is their non-identity that determines the need for communication for everyone and, taking into account the personal (relevant in a given situation) characteristics of each, makes it unique. At the same time, since in full-fledged multidimensional communication there is no sender and recipient of messages - there are subjects, individuals, interlocutors, they do not send each other their information in turn, but simultaneously interact, that is, they not only transmit and perceive any information, but they process it, discuss it, becoming partners in their common cause - the joint development of the resulting information. It turns out that in communication, information circulates between partners, since both of them are active (albeit sometimes to varying degrees), and therefore information does not decrease, but increases, enriches, expands in the process of its circulation due to structuring and increment of meanings in the process of understanding.
Let us illustrate what is meant by this enrichment of information and its increment in the process of communication with a quote from the book “The World of Communication” by M. S. Kagan: “They often refer to the judgment of B. Shaw: “If you have an apple and I have an apple and if we exchange these apples, then both you and I have one apple left. And if you have an idea and I have an idea and we exchange these ideas, then each of us will have two ideas.” But if Bernard Shaw’s thought regarding apples perfectly reflects material interaction, then the second part, which talks about the exchange of ideas, can be considered correct only in relation to communication, since the exchange of ideas not only does not take into account the personal characteristics of the participants, proceeds alternately and monologically, but also As a result, everyone has nothing more than an arithmetic summation of available and received information. Communication presupposes that the collision of ideas gives rise to fundamentally new products - for example, knowledge about practical application these ideas." Thus, at the end of their discussion, communication partners may no longer have two ideas, but three or more. It is then that we can talk about an increase in meaning as a result of communication. Of course, this model of communication is not applicable to all its manifestations, but only communication provides such an opportunity. Thus, communication is the process of developing new information that is common to communicating people and gives rise to their community or increases the degree of their community while maintaining the unique individuality of each.
Thus, if communication is intended to transmit and receive information, that is, to preserve it, then communication also performs another function in culture - the function of not only storing, but also developing information in the process of dialogue. In addition, communication is limited to information exchange as a product of previous mental and speech activity, and communication presupposes the process of developing joint information. This interaction process is characterized by two-sidedness (multilateralism) regarding the participants in this communication. At the same time, it is characterized by a two-layer content, since in addition to logical information, that is, the subject of speech, communication always contains emotional and evaluative information about the attitude towards this subject of speech and about the attitude towards communication partners.
What types of information are typical for communication?
The difference in the meanings of the concepts “communication” and “communication” is largely based on the nature of the information that connects communicants. Information is information that is the object of storage, processing and transmission.
Let us emphasize that facts are not information in themselves, but only as an object of corresponding activity. It is generally accepted to divide information into logical, which has an objective nature, and emotional-evaluative, which expresses predominantly subjective meanings, assessments and relationships. Communication always involves the communication of some information: logical or emotional-evaluative. This is the main and only purpose of “pure” communication. Communication necessarily includes one more side - non-informational, or, according to the popular term, phatic.
The phatic component of communication means an understanding not so much of the meaning of a statement - the main one or their totality, but rather an understanding of the person himself (the author of this text) and the establishment of personal relationships with him. As a rule, exclusively phatic communication, that is, communication for the sake of communication, “conversation for the sake of conversation,” occurs when there is no task to convey any information or when the task of establishing or maintaining certain relationships at a certain level becomes the main one. (Read more about the specifics of phatic communication in this chapter when characterizing types of communication.) But most often, communication combines informational and non-informational (phatic) goals. This communication also differs from communication in which the phatic side is not present.
Which form of speech activity predominates in communication, and which - in communication?
Communication and interaction are also distinguished by the predominant form of speech activity of the participants in the process: monologue in communication, and dialogue in communication. Dialogue and monologue are usually distinguished primarily from formal positions, that is, by the number of speakers: if one speaks, it is a monologue, and two or more enter into dialogue. However, for studying the differences between communication and communication, this approach is not always justified. In accordance with the dialogic nature of communication, its main form is dialogue. Moreover, the monologue in this aspect becomes not so much a form of speech in the presence/absence of a change in speech partners, but rather an expanded replica within the general dialogue with this partner (even if the response form is silence). At the same time, the main goal of communication is to transmit or receive information. Therefore, communication, unlike communication, does not always involve a response, and if this happens, it often represents a response to a request for information or a request for new information, that is, the exchange of information occurs alternately, like an exchange of monologues, and not mutually and at the same time, as is typical of dialogue. Therefore, communication is monological in nature, in contrast to communication. (More details about monologue and dialogue as types of communication will be discussed later in this chapter.) Communication and communication also differ in the degree of activity of the participants. In communication, one is always active, and the other (the rest) play the passive role of recipients of information. These roles may change, but the pattern itself remains. In communication, all partners are simultaneously active (to a greater or lesser extent), since listening or reading, during which the speech of the speaker (writer) is perceived, in this case includes not only the reception of information, but also its interpretation and an active response. Consequently, since activity is a product of awareness and independence, communication as a process requires the individual to be aware of his individuality and demonstrate it. Communication involves a certain contribution of effort, ideas, etc. on the part of everyone to obtain a common product. Thus, communication determines everyone’s speech creativity as a prerequisite for participation in communication.
How do differences in communication and communication affect different aspects of speech effectiveness?
Communication, as a predominantly unidirectional process, usually lends itself to precise planning. If you need to inform someone about something and there are all the necessary conditions for this (this person can listen to you or read your written notice), then you will surely complete your task. Communication, being a process of interaction between individuals, is always improvisational and often unpredictable. For example, you are concerned about some problem, you go to someone to discuss it. As a result of this discussion, it may turn out that you are developing some kind of joint decision, that your communication partner (partners) supports your proposed solution to this problem, that you are being convinced of the unacceptability of your proposal or are proving that this is not the problem at all. you need to worry. It is impossible to know in advance exactly and definitely what the result of such a discussion will be.
In addition, communication can be axial (from the Latin axis - axis), that is, precisely addressed to a specific recipient, or retial (from the Latin rete - network, net), in other words, in this case, information is sent without a strictly designated addressee - to everyone at once. At the same time, the number of information recipients does not affect the nature of communication (axial or retial), because a large group can act as a specific addressee, and an example of retial communication can be advertising, which is often perceived one by one.
Communication always presupposes mutual precise targeting of the speech of all partners.
Communication and communication also differ in the presence/absence of understanding as a mandatory result of the process that has taken place. In communication, its effectiveness is assessed by the degree of adequacy of the information sent and received. If there is no loss, the effectiveness of communication is 100%.
If it happened, it can be calculated in units of information. But in communication, the recipient’s understanding of this information is not set as a mandatory goal. Moreover, the sender does not always understand what he is transmitting. For example, a student taking an exam or a schoolboy at the blackboard can “rumble out” complex textbook material. Does the respondent always fully understand what he is saying? Thus, understanding in communication may not occur. In communication, effectiveness is assessed, first of all, by how partners understand each other. “Understanding” in this case includes both the informational and phatic sides of communication, that is, you can understand information that is in speech at one of the levels of understanding, or you can understand the person himself, his position on some issue that the addressee does not understand . Understanding can only occur if communication partners have something in common, if new information complements what was previously known. The result of understanding is not the ultimate truth. The same message can be understood in different ways, and, depending on this, the response can be different, but without understanding, communication is impossible, because in this case the community between partners will either not arise or will be destroyed. This means that for communication, understanding is optional (although in most cases understanding presupposes it), but for communication it is mandatory.
So, the main purpose of communication is not only to transmit or receive information, but also to create, maintain, and transfer relationships between people to a new, higher level. And the main thing in this is to achieve understanding.
What may dictate the need to choose one or another method of interaction - communication or communication?
We consider “communication” and “communication”, as they say, “in their pure” form, but in reality there are many forms of their mutual transitions from one to another. First of all, these are official and business situations, as well as other situations in which the individuality of the partner is neglected, when the personal characteristics of people are leveled, desubjectivized, making them an easily replaceable social object. This is reflected in the differentiation of communication levels.
And yet both of these forms - communication and communication - are necessary for a person, social development and culture, since they have different areas of application and complement each other. And accordingly, each person must be able to combine the positions of subject and object of activity, quickly switch from the role of listener to the role of co-author and back, from the role of performer to the role of partner and back, etc.
Thus, the terms “communication” and “communication” have their own shades of meaning, which reflect two main groups of situations:
1. Situations when the purpose of a communicative act is the transfer of constant information.
2. Situations when the purpose of a communication act is to generate new information.
Situations of the second type, when the purpose of a communication act is to generate new information, have their own characteristics. “Here the value of the system is determined by a non-trivial shift in meaning during the movement of the text from the transmitter to the receiver. We call nontrivial a shift in meaning that is not clearly predictable and is not specified by a specific text transformation algorithm” (Yu. M. Lotman).
The text resulting from such a shift will be new not only for the addressee, but also for its author. “The possibility of the formation of new texts is determined both by accidents and errors, and by the difference and untranslatability of the code of the source text and the one in the direction of which the recoding is performed.” That is, a new text is a text that cannot be adequately reverse “translated” into the original one, since in the process of communication a recoding system occurred that violated the identity of the original and final texts. Please note: Yu. M. Lotman does not give an unambiguous assessment of this non-identity on a good/bad scale due to various reasons for such inadequacy. We will return to the consideration of these reasons in other chapters, but now we emphasize that the emergence of new texts of this kind is more characteristic of communication than of communication.
Thus, the peculiarities of the situation and the goals facing communicants in each specific case dictate the need to choose one or another method of interaction - communication or communication.
We will more often use the term “communication”, which to a greater extent reflects the specifics of the culture of speech in our understanding.
What is the culture of communication as an essential element of a person’s general culture?
The culture of communication, like any manifestation of culture, is characterized by all its features, therefore the concept of “culture of communication” must first of all be “delimited” from the anticulture of communication, that is, from everything that deliberately separates people, violates the integrity of communication, its traditions, etc. etc., and from lack of culture, the causes of which are ignorance or half-knowledge, ignorance in general.
3-1G)1G)KI|||1ol11N)ia 33 The creative component of communication allows individuals to transfer the situation from communication to communication and back, to create the framework of communication themselves, to determine its duration themselves, to choose communication partners themselves. And at the same time act not only jointly, but also in common interests.
Both the process and the result of communication have the goal of creating or strengthening their unity, their community, therefore, in every culture and in every social group, rituals arise to distinguish “us” from “strangers”. All forms of communication specific to each group: rituals, ceremonies, traditions that govern the relationships of different generations, professions, groups, etc. serve consolidation and at the same time fence it off from other groups, that is, they affirm its internal integrity, cohesion and its originality, uniqueness . This is especially evident in speech, since the main purpose of a literary language, professional, dialect or jargon is to be a means of distinguishing representatives of a given social group from others.
The culture of communication also presupposes a distinction from anti-communication (pseudo-communication). Pseudocommunication is a deception or self-deception in which communication appears to be occurring when in reality it is not. As a rule, in such situations, the main feature in communication - interaction - does not arise.
Even if both (or several) people perform verbal or other actions, they occur independently of each other and remain isolated. It is important that in such cases, communication as a process of interaction is often opposed to non-communication not neutrally as the absence of this interaction, but as a refusal to interact or opposition, active or passive. And in this regard, non-communication is perceived as open or hidden aggression. Pseudo-communication destroys the unity and integrity of relationships, and therefore belongs to anti-communication.
Boundaries in communication serve different functions. This includes distinguishing between different communication situations, defining the “circle” of participants in communication, establishing a framework for communication that includes a particular distance between them, distinguishing between types of communication, etc.
3. TYPES AND FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
What are the main types of communication?
Important “milestones” in orientation regarding the framework of communication and in their creation are the types and forms of communication. The choice of optimal types and forms of communication, taking into account all the features of a particular situation, is also an important element of culture.
Like culture as a whole, communication is multifaceted and multi-layered, therefore types of communication characterize it on different grounds. We are based on the classification of N.I. Formanovskaya, which identifies the following types of communication:
By purpose: phatic (that is, non-informational) - informational (non-phatic).
According to the sign system used in communication: verbal (verbal, that is, usually the natural national language) - non-verbal (non-verbal - gestures, facial expressions, etc.).
According to the form of language: oral - written.
According to the constant/variable communicative role of I-speaker and you-listener: monological - dialogical.
According to the position of the communicants relative to each other in space and time: contact - distant.
According to the presence/absence of any mediating “apparatus”: indirect - direct.
By the number of participants: interpersonal - public - mass.
According to the nature of the relationship between the people communicating and the communication environment: private - official.
In relation to compliance/non-compliance with strict rules of construction and use finished text: free - stereotypical, etc.
Let us characterize the main types and forms of communication in more detail.
What underlies the distinction between phatic and informational communication?
For informational (non-phatic) communication, the main goal is always related to information. During such communication, something new for a given addressee is reported or heard (read).
Phatic (non-informational) communication is not aimed at transmitting or receiving information, but at establishing and maintaining verbal contact with the interlocutor, at regulating relationships, at satisfying the need for communication: to speak in order to speak out and find understanding - this is the main goal of such communication. “Phatics” is closely related to the spiritual side of communication (but is not equal to it). Therefore, within the framework of phatic communication there are both aimless, meaningless chatter “out of nothing to do” and serious, thoughtful, and finally, simply interesting conversation. A typical example of the first would be a long conversation between women on the phone, when it seems to men that this whole conversation is “about nothing.” Or small talk, conversations at a party at the table, when people talk about a little bit of everything, but most often something known to everyone is discussed. All these are variants of phatic communication. Thus, phatic interaction is always characteristic only of communication and cannot relate to communication.
This determines other features of phatic communication.
If information communication is usually purposeful and devoted to the discussion of a single topic throughout the entire communication, then phatic communication is distinguished, according to the results of the study by T. G. Vinokur: a) unpreparedness, spontaneity; b) dialogical form; c) thematic freedom, “for the topic is not as important as its treatment”; d) therefore, the conversational style. We emphasize that phatic communication belongs primarily to oral speech and is most clearly manifested in dialogue.
It is important to note that phatic communication is not only characteristic of a pleasant pastime; it has two main strategies - dissonance and unison. We will be interested only in the second. Phatic communication includes both cooperative and conflictual communication with different forms, tonality, relationships (degree of intimacy) between partners. This may also be a situation that requires sympathy, empathy, condolences. This includes “clarification of relationships,” etc. In other words, in phatic communication, the general speech task of the communicators can vary depending on close or non-close relationships.
Let's consider typical situations with clarification of the speech task depending on the degree of proximity of communication partners:
1. Between strangers - make acquaintances, while away the time in conditions of being forced to be together (in transport, etc.).
2. Between unfamiliar people - strengthen acquaintance.
3. If you meet by chance, follow the rules of polite behavior when it is awkward to remain silent.
5. Between close friends or in the family - to pay tribute to the habit of exchanging opinions, to express emotions on any occasion for which there is no information need.
Phatic communication is also distinguished by a set of typical topics that are discussed in the process of such communication: health, weather, family matters, sports, impressions of what you read, saw, discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of mutual friends, etc. or situationally determined topics - the work of transport, the latest city (local) news, etc.
At the same time, phatic communication more often accompanies informational communication, therefore, informational-phatic balance is usually maintained in speech as the norm of speech behavior. The first thing a person does when he sees another is to perceive and evaluate him. Depending on whether we want to enter into communication with this or that person, we unconsciously “turn on” or “turn off” the phatic side in communication. And further, as a rule, interaction combines a phatic and informational component. Because, even if we enter into communication with a specific goal (for example, to learn something), then, having completed it, we can complete the communication. But we don't always do this. Therefore, having completed the informational phase of communication, we can move into an exclusively phatic one, as is usually the case with people who are pleasant to each other.
Thus, phatic communication is a property of any culture. It exists in many varieties - from the chatter that accompanies any activity, to the art of conversation, and pursues the goals of creating community in various socially determined situations.
What is called verbal and what is called non-verbal in communication?
Verbal and non-verbal communication also most often accompany each other, since verbal communication is verbal communication, that is, in one of the natural national languages. Nonverbal communication is non-verbal communication, in which the system of signs is: in oral speech - a combination of posture, gestures, facial expressions, intonation, etc., and in written speech - the arrangement of text, fonts, diagrams, tables, graphics, etc.
Each of these types of communication corresponds to one of two existing types of information presentation - linear and fenestration (from the Latin fenestra - “window”). Signs following one after another represent information linearly (this is how verbal speech unfolds). Signs, grouped so that their semantic perception is as simultaneous and unified as possible, represent information in a different, fenestration form (non-verbal speech and other signs - emblem, coat of arms, order, road sign - are also perceived in a complex manner). Usually these types of information presentation complement each other (A. A. Brudny).
In essence, in this case we mean two different, but almost always combined languages: verbal and non-verbal. Usually, in relation to the culture of communication and the culture of speech, it is customary to talk about the verbal side, but, taking into account the importance of non-verbal communication, we have separated the conversation about the culture of non-verbal speech into a separate chapter.
Please note: the division of the verbal and non-verbal sides of speech is very arbitrary and is possible only for the convenience of description, since both the verbal and non-verbal sides of communication very rarely exist without each other. Accordingly, in relation to communication, it is more correct to talk about verbal-nonverbal balance as the norm of verbal communication.
How is oral communication different from written communication?
These types of communication correspond to two main channels of communication: oral-auditory and written-visual, and similar forms of speech: oral and written.
The specificity of oral and written communication is determined by two main groups of reasons:
1. Features of situations of oral and written communication.
2. Features determined by the form of speech.
Situations that require oral communication are usually characterized by the fact that personal contact is possible between the participants in communication: both visual (visual) and acoustic (auditory), that is, partners both see and hear each other, or acoustic, when people only hear each other, for example, on the phone or in the forest, in a field in the fog, in another room, etc.
If such personal contact is impossible or for some reason inappropriate, then they usually resort to written communication (letter, note, telegram, email, SMS message, etc.).
The communicator’s choice of oral or written form is also influenced by how quickly he needs to receive a response and whether he needs to receive it at all. If the response is important and you need to get it as soon as possible, then an oral form of speech is preferable, in which the response follows immediately. If an answer is not needed (communication is taking place, not communication) or a quick response is not needed, then a written form of speech can be chosen.
In addition, the choice of one form or another of speech is dictated by the characteristics of the information. In oral speech, sometimes the meaning of not words, but intonation and other non-verbal means of speech, is more important, while in written speech the main meaning is conveyed verbally. Sometimes the choice of speech form is determined by the importance or volume of information transmitted, namely: since oral speech is pronounced once (“The word is not a sparrow, if it flies out, you won’t catch it”), and the written text is often oriented towards repeated re-reading, then important and complex information or information of a large volume It is more convenient to convey in the hope of more adequate understanding in written form, and easier to understand - in oral form.
To decide which form of speech to prefer, it is necessary to know who this speech is intended for, and under what conditions it can be perceived most adequately. Oral speech is spoken to a specific listener(s) and in a specific communication situation, while written speech can be addressed either to a specific person (letter, note, personal diary, etc.) or to a hypothetical reader (book, instruction, etc.) , this does not exclude the possibility of changing both the addressee and the conditions in which the reading occurs.
These are just the main features of the communication situation that can influence the choice of oral or written form of speech. At the same time, the features of these forms of speech also need to be taken into account to achieve optimal results.
Please note that:
Oral speech, due to its one-time nature and, often, improvisational speech, is limited in the selection of linguistic and non-linguistic means to express a certain meaning, while written speech usually presupposes a complete and complete expression of the idea;
Oral speech, as a rule, is created at the moment of speaking, and an unfixed text leaves room for additions and changes, up to “that’s not what I wanted to say,” while written speech requires polished, precise fixation of the text;
Spoken speech, in accordance with the law of redundancy, contains more repetitions and generalizations, while in written speech there are fewer of them or none at all.
All these features together determine the choice of a speech genre appropriate for the purpose of communication. You will learn more about the culture of oral and written speech, as well as the genres characteristic of each of these forms of speech, from the special chapters of this textbook.
WHAT distinguishes monologue communication from dialogic communication?
There are two types of oral speech based on the number of persons producing the speech - monologue and dialogue. Accordingly, monologue and dialogic are types of communication that differ in the constant/variable communicative role of the speaker and the listener (N. I. Formanovskaya).
Dialogue (from the Greek dia - “through” and logos - “word”, “speech”) is a direct exchange of statements between two or more persons, a monologue (from the Greek monos - “one” and logos - “word”, “ speech") is the speech of one person, which does not involve exchange of remarks with other persons. Sometimes polylogue is also distinguished as a conversation between several persons, but this is terminologically incorrect, since the need for this term is based on the false assumption that part of the word “dia” is translated as “two” and, therefore, the conversation of a larger number of communication participants needs a special designation.
Monological and dialogic communication are distinguished as special types because each of these varieties has its own characteristics. However, it is important to distinguish between dialogue as a property of any culture (that is, a constant orientation towards a partner, towards understanding, towards the “other”, for whom speech is created) and dialogue as a form of speech in which there is a change in the speech roles of the speaker and the listener. Dialogue also includes a monologue, which most often presupposes a certain answer.
The answer can be: 1) a verbal answer with new content; 2) action (non-verbal); 3) retelling the content of the message to another, that is, to a “third party”; 4) silence or lack of action (Yu. V. Rozhdestvensky). In addition, the answer can be written, delayed in time, etc. Thus, dialogism accumulates both types of communication - monological and dialogical.
Dialogue as a form of speech most closely meets the desire of those communicating for dialogue, since dialogue presupposes special cooperation between communicants based on mutual interest (M. M. Bakhtin, L. P. Yakubinsky). M. M. Bakhtin believed that “dialogue, in its simplicity and clarity, is a classic form of verbal communication. Each remark, no matter how short and abrupt, has a specific completeness, expressing a certain position of the speaker, to which one can respond, in relation to which one can take a reciprocal position.” This constantly renewed need to take a responsive position is, in many ways, the driving force for the development of dialogue and communication in general. At the same time, the replicas of the participants in the dialogue do not represent a formal combination of everyone’s statements: they are closely related to each other in meaning. Often, remarks form inextricable pairs: question - answer, statement - objection, statement - agreement, proposal - acceptance/non-acceptance of this proposal, etc.
This property of dialogue explains why it is more characteristic of oral speech and why in dialogue it is necessary to constantly monitor the thoughts of the interlocutor.
The features of dialogue also determine the boundaries of its capabilities.
It is believed that dialogue is a more ancient, natural form speech. And a monologue is a product of culture. What caused the need for the appearance of a monologue in ancient times and what determines its cultural value today?
The reasons for the appearance of a monologue are probably explained by the fact that it allows the speaker to be more independent than in a dialogue in choosing the content and form of his speech. A monologue is longer than a dialogue replica, so a monologue statement is usually more detailed than a replica. This allows the author of the speech to express more complex thoughts in the most appropriate form.
Monologue as a form of speech differs from dialogue primarily in that the listener or reader does not directly participate in the creation of speech. Their response (agreement, objection, one or another level of understanding, etc.) is only guessed (or predicted) by the speaker. Therefore, it is believed that monologue speech is most often a public speech, that is, one that is addressed not to one or two, but to a large number of listeners. But it is not always the case.
The following characteristic features of monologue speech are usually distinguished:
1) continuity (the statement is not limited to one phrase, but represents a super-phrase unity of a certain volume);
2) consistency, logic of speech;
3) relative semantic completeness;
4) communicative orientation of the statement;
5) thematic (development of one topic);
6) syntactic complexity, etc.
In other words, a monologue assumes that it is based on a text - a coherent, complete, thematically integral statement.
Thus, both dialogue and monologue have their own characteristics, which determine their capabilities and advantages in achieving certain goals.
What determines the choice of contact or distance communication?
These types of communication reflect the position of the communicants relative to each other in space and time, that is, the presence of direct contact (from the Latin contactus - contact) between partners, or its absence and the existence of a spatial distance between them (from the Latin distantia - distance).
In contact communication, interaction occurs simultaneously, the partners are close to each other, as a rule, they see and hear each other, so contact communication is almost always oral. This makes it possible to communicate using not only verbal, but also non-verbal means. During contact communication, the situation allows partners to use in speech not descriptions, but indications of objects, actions and phenomena, as a result of which understanding is achieved much more easily. For example, “We need to go over there”, “Please give me this thing”
or “What a great weather today!” Outside of a specific situation, the meaning of these and similar remarks is not clear to us, and during contact communication, the condensation of situationally determined elements of speech can reach a level at which it is possible to understand each other “at a glance” or “without words.”
Distant communication occurs when partners are separated by space and time. For example, reading a book implies that the author is separated from the reader by both.
Sometimes participants in communication are separated by one of these components of the situation:
for example, space (they are talking on the phone or having a dialogue on the Internet, etc.) or time (notes are being exchanged in the classroom). There is always distant communication in letters, etc.
With distance communication, the share of non-verbal means of communication is significantly reduced, its liveliness and instantaneous response are lost. However, in situations in which direct contact is unnecessary or undesirable, it is preferable.
In turn, communication at a distance involves the use of auxiliary means as information carriers or means that help maintain the information transmission channel. In this regard, based on the presence/absence of any auxiliary “apparatus,” indirect-direct communication is distinguished.
Indirect and direct types of communication are closely related to contact and distance communication, since, as a rule, contact communication, which does not require additional means for its implementation, is direct communication. And communication at a distance or when some time passes between partners’ “replicas” requires “intermediaries,” that is, it is indirect. The means that provide the possibility of distant communication include: telephone, letter, book, newspaper, tape recorder, video, radio, television, computer, etc. All of them can help in transmitting and receiving information.
Each of these types of communication has its own purpose and its own “niche” in communication.
What is the difference between interpersonal, public and mass communication?
These types of communication are distinguished depending on how many partners take part in the communication.
If two people take part in communication (the formula “one + one”), then this is interpersonal communication. At the same time, the degree of closeness in the relationship between these partners can vary significantly, therefore, within it, personal communication is distinguished as communication at a greater “internal” distance (official or semi-official) and personal communication, indicating friendly, closer relationships. This subtype of communication is characterized primarily by dialogue. Personal communication is more often direct contact, in which a significant proportion of information is received through non-verbal means. It is distinguished by the fact that the phatic side of communication is necessarily present in it (often even prevails in the case when it occurs remotely and indirectly, for example, personal letters or video messages). Personal communication usually gravitates towards communication, that is, in it the informational side of interaction comes to the fore, and the phatic side is not present at all or is weakly expressed.
If several people take part in communication (the formula “one + a few”), then its features depend on how many people interact and what the communication situation is as a whole. This could be 3-4 people of friends in an informal setting - then their communication is close to interpersonal (with a small number of people communicating, their interaction is called group), or maybe 20-50 people, in which case it becomes unconditionally public even in an informal environment. Group communication is characterized by the fact that dialogue is still possible in it (if not between everyone, then with many), but such communication already requires a leader who will regulate this communication - encouraging some to speak out, interrupting others, etc., as this happens, for example, at a table, where the host or toastmaster controls the interaction.
Public communication (classroom class, meeting, etc.) usually takes place in the form of a monologue. It always requires structuring, since people in such cases come together to achieve some important goal. Without a structural organization of communication, this goal is unlikely to be achieved. In public communication, a different, higher degree of responsibility for speech arises, and one of the main requirements for it becomes purposeful and meaningful. In this case, the level of requirements for the design of speech, for compliance with ethical and communicative standards in it, for its correctness and aesthetics also increases.
Responsibility for speech and its consequences increases even more when mass communication is realized. It is believed that mass communication occurs when the audience exceeds 100 people (the formula “one + many”). This can also be in oral speech - a speech at a representative meeting, a congress, a concert at a stadium, etc., but most often this kind of communication is characteristic of newspapers, television, etc. More precisely, this is usually no longer communication, but communication . Therefore, the corresponding means are called mass communication. With mass communication, the addressee loses its specific outlines - it, as a rule, exists in the imagination of the speaker in a generalized form. Accordingly, a mass audience requires not only an accurate selection of speech means, but also technical means: microphones (megaphones) to amplify the sound of voices, television cameras and television screens to transmit (or enlarge) images, etc.
But no matter how many people participate in communication, their interaction depends on the degree of formality of this communication. They usually talk about two extremes - official and informal communication, but there are many transitional forms between them.
What distinguishes formal communication from informal communication?
Based on the nature of the relationships between the people communicating and the communication environment, private (unofficial) and official communication are distinguished.
Official (official) communication is interaction in a strict business environment, therefore, in compliance with all rules and formalities. Private communication is a relationship that is not limited by the strict boundaries of a business situation and official speech roles.
The distinction between these types of communication is due to the presence of certain areas of communication, social roles and relationships between communication partners.
Official communication takes place in the sphere of industrial and business relations, that is, where it is possible for a person to fulfill one or another official role (boss, subordinate, colleague, government representative, etc.). In this case, the person acts not as an individual, but as a representative of some organization, group, etc. His communication in general and speech in particular are structured accordingly - the official (the person “in charge”) must strictly observe his role, be as predictable and understandable as possible when performing this role. Therefore, communication in official situations approaches “object-object” and is, rather, communication. And the official’s speech (oral and written), in accordance with this, is built according to a template, which in official communication is designed to ensure adequacy of understanding in typical situations. This applies to both genres built according to a rigid scheme (for example, a statement, summary, explanatory note, memorandum, report, etc.), and figures of speech.
Unofficial, that is, private, communication flows more freely and obeys only the general laws of speech interaction.
What is the difference between free and stereotypical communication?
The stereotypical type of communication is used primarily when it comes to observing established rituals, that is, about typical behavior in typical situations. These can be both official situations (the beginning and end of a meeting, greeting guests, etc.) and informal, everyday situations (situations at a doctor’s appointment, at a store counter, etc.). Usually in such cases, recommendations of speech etiquette act as a guide to verbal and non-verbal action. It includes certain rules of behavior and ready-made verbal expressions (formulas of greetings, apologies, requests, condolences, congratulations, etc.), as well as response speech cliches for speech behavior corresponding to each typical situation in the main areas of communication.
In other situations, communication is more free and involves creativity both in building relationships and in verbal design.
3. HOW TO ACHIEVE OPTIMAL COMMUNICATION
What is the role of typical scripts in speech behavior?
Speech is both a form of individual behavior and a form of universal human culture. This is the same contradiction that is common to any form of culture and ensures its development. Therefore, speech necessarily combines and intertwines stereotypes and the manifestation of the originality and individuality of the author.
Stereotypes are an integral element of everyday consciousness.
A stereotype accumulates a certain standardized collective experience that helps an individual navigate various communication situations and respond to them adequately to the expectations of other participants in communication. The assignment of certain speech manifestations to certain communicative behavior allows all participants in communication to create one or another image. Stereotypic construction and speech structures are characteristic of every genre and style, but especially of official business. But if a person constructs his speech behavior only stereotypically, he thereby levels himself as an individual, does not model communication in accordance with his goals, and does not manifest himself as a creative person.
Speech in situations of extensive communication (not ritual) must necessarily include a creative component. This is the advantage of communication - for the sake of creativity, for the sake of creating something new together, people enter into communication. But when in the process of communication we encounter speech creation, the problem of mutual understanding arises, which is complicated by the fact that our speech is full of “echoes of previous statements” (M. M. Bakhtin), not all of which can be known and adequately understood by our addressee, in As a result, the problem arises of both understanding our speech in itself and understanding our speech in the context (given or more general) and its interpretation.
The situation is even more difficult with understanding highly emotional speech, the main purpose of which is to express these emotions. This speech is often incoherent, and its author himself often does not know what he is leading to, what he wants to say, what way out of the current situation he prefers. Therefore, communication must be regulated so that the necessary balance is maintained between the stereotypical side of speech, common to everyone, and the manifestation of individuality and the creative component in it. This is served by the typical “scenarios” of behavior developed in each culture, within the framework of which the individual is realized with a greater or lesser degree of creativity, and knowledge of various scenarios, “recognizing” them in the process of communication and following them or imposing one’s own scenario largely determines the ability communicate.
What are communication barriers?
The ability to communicate also depends on how much a person can overcome communication barriers. Barriers are obstacles that interfere with communication. Sometimes you need to overcome them, sometimes you need to take them into account and move past them. Communication barriers can be divided into internal and external.
Internal barriers that may arise in one or more participants in communication are feelings, thoughts or states that make communication difficult. For example, if a person is absorbed in something else (business, thoughts, excitement), then it can be very difficult for him to switch to communication on another topic. A barrier of this kind may be fatigue or poor health, fear of communication in general or with a given partner, etc. But there are internal barriers of an ethical nature, when “primitive interpersonal reactions,” as A. B. Dobrovich characterized them, prevent full communication. These are, first of all, ambition, complacency, envy, gloating, aggression, indifference.
External communication barriers are, rather, communicative in nature. These may be obstacles associated with the lack of contact itself (visual or sound, or both), lack of attention (all this can be attributed to the conditions of communication), etc. Barriers can also be caused by the nature of communication: its uniformity, monotony, uninformative, vacuous, or unsatisfying in terms of content due to incompetence, lies, lack of necessary knowledge of both the speaker (writer) and the listener (reader).
Communication barriers can also be caused by speech reasons themselves: ignorance or insufficient knowledge of the language, illogicality or imprecision of speech, its poverty, etc.
The existence of these and other barriers in a given communication situation makes speech inaccessible and/or inappropriate.
Thus, to optimize and regulate communication, and sometimes to implement it, such norms are necessary, the observance of which would help to overcome all communication barriers.
At what levels can communication take place?
These norms will depend on the levels of communication, since interactions at different levels may differ significantly in both goals and nature. There are different classifications of communication levels. We are based on the classification of V.P. Tretyakov and Yu.S. Krizhanskaya, who distinguish three levels of communication: ritual, manipulative and friendly.
1. The ritual level of communication is a level of communication that implements the “object-object” relationship, when individuality is not manifested by the communicants, and contact is carried out at the level of the process of “accepting and playing roles”, or at the level of interaction of “masks”. A mask is a set of signs (verbal and non-verbal), the presentation of which ensures “smooth” and safe interaction in a human group (R. Jacobson). The ritual level of communication is almost entirely regulated by speech etiquette.
The point of ritual communication is that we need at least a minimum of information that we are “seen” and recognized, and not ignored. And even better - they approve of us with their goodwill. In this regard, the theory of “social strokes” by Eric Berne is interesting and productive, based on the fact that every person in the process of communication needs positive incentives. And basic politeness can be considered as an exchange of “strokes” - a greeting in response to a greeting, etc.
The ritual level of communication serves to confirm that the participants in communication are members of some social group. This is the level of formal phatic communication.
2. Manipulative level of communication. (Manipulation - from lat.
manipulus - manual technique, action - a series of manual actions performed for a specific purpose.) The manipulative level of communication involves interaction based on “subject-object” relationships: one partner views the other as a means or as a hindrance in relation to achieving his goal. They speak of a manipulative level when the main thing for communicators is to achieve effective speech at any cost. This reveals another shade of the meaning of the word manipulation: “machination, deception.” Very often, the partner feels like a rival in the game. The purpose of such communication is gain, if not material, then psychological.
The general principle of manipulative communication is a hidden influence on the interlocutor, ignoring his will. In speech manipulation there is always a moment of inequality, disrespect for a person, for his personality, therefore the main part of conflict relations relates to this level of communication. Conflict manipulation is a speech action, the purpose of which is to feel superior to the interlocutor by demonstrating to him his imperfection and inferiority. Or, in other words, to self-affirmation at the expense of a partner. Such a speech action is close to the phenomenon of indirect aggression. But manipulation is different in that it is always accompanied by a hidden incentive to take some action (K. F. Sedov).
At this level, communication is intertwined with management-execution relationships. Therefore, the main problems with understanding the explicit and hidden speech intentions of communicants are associated precisely with this level.
The level of manipulative communication is heterogeneous. An idea of this is given by other classifications of communication levels, which, in fact, contain more detailed characteristics of such an understanding of manipulative communication. For example, A. B. Dobrovich identifies the following levels of communication: primitive, manipulative, standardized, conventional, gaming, business and spiritual. Primitive and spiritual levels correspond to ritual and friendly, and the rest reflect various communication situations in which the information component predominates. The phatic component of communication at this level serves as one of the means to achieve the main goal.
3. Friendly level of communication. This level is characterized by the interaction of subjects with a large share of phatic communication, since the main thing in such communication is understanding and acceptance of a person as an individual. The friendly level is a level at which you don’t have to worry about “speech production techniques,” that is, there is a deep understanding of speech: not at the level of individual words, but understanding at the level of the entire person. It was this kind of communication that A. Saint-Exupery spoke of as “the luxury of human communication,” since spiritual, and therefore creative, communication predominates in it.
It is the spiritual aspect of verbal communication that makes it a necessary component of culture, since communication in its essence is a way of existence of culture, and not just a means of recording transmitted information, storing it and transmitting it from generation to generation. It is assumed that the spiritual orientation of communication already implies ethically impeccable goals of communicants.
In order to communicate at this level, you must first of all be attentive to your partners and develop the ability to communicate.
In fact, all levels of communication reflect the idea of how communication is structured - how the partner is perceived: as a subject, that is, as a person, as an equal, having the right to his point of view, to speech, to participate in the development of a joint decision, etc. ., or as an object deprived of these rights and forced to act only in accordance with the role assigned to it by the addressee (M. M. Bakhtin).
What makes for optimal communication?
At all levels of communication, the ability to communicate is determined by three main components:
Skills associated with the perception and understanding of another person and at the same time - the ability to present oneself and express oneself;
The ability to bring together points of view - your own and your interlocutor's;
The ability to manage communication (according to S. B. Elkanov).
Based on the above, we will define optimal communication.
Optimal communication is an interaction that creates the best conditions for the development and implementation of non-contradictory communicative goals of all communication partners, for the creation of a favorable emotional climate due to overcoming various kinds of barriers, as well as for the maximum disclosure of each person’s personality.
How to achieve optimal communication?
1. Improve your own culture, strive to be a highly cultured person. And this means combining external and internal culture. External culture is manifested in the fact that a person acts according to all the rules only when he is in public view or when this action of his becomes known to people in front of whom he plays the role of a cultured person. Internal culture consists in the fact that a person always acts as required by the moral laws of this society.
A cultured person is a person who consciously accepts certain restrictions related to compliance with accepted norms in society.
2. Learn to constantly think about your interlocutor during communication: monitor whether you are understood; strive to anticipate the interlocutor’s response; constantly recreate his internal psychological situation based on external signs; take care not to create barriers to communication.
For this, humanity has developed communication norms and speech norms, which help make communication optimal.
Norms are tools for achieving optimal communication.
The goals of harmonious and effective communication (and this is optimal communication) have a leading influence on the formation of the very types of communication norms (ethical, communicative and speech).
4-15458 Ppnolitova 49 Norms are mechanisms that help coordinate all aspects of communication: cognitive (how you see other people and how you understand them), affective (how you treat them) and behavioral (how you act in specific situations) (T. G. Vinokur). It is important to take into account that the norm is how it should be. But the norm is also something average, so the norm is the minimum on the basis of which (but not vice versa) you can express your individuality.
There are three types of norms - ethical, communicative and linguistic. These are types of norms at different levels.
Ethical standards relate primarily to the motives of speech, to the area of communication culture - this is goodwill, acceptance of communication partners, compliance with all moral laws. These norms can be conditionally attributed to the norms of the strategic level - relationships with the world in general and a specific person in particular.
Communication norms accompany the entire communication situation in all its phases. These are norms related to ensuring the communication process and its regulation to achieve the set communication goals. These are norms that combine strategic and tactical elements, since the choice of a communication situation, partners, and the subject of speech can be classified as strategy, and the specific implementation of the speech plan and the regulation of communication can be classified as tactics.
Speech norms are means of implementing both ethical and communicative norms.
One of the components of communication culture is speech culture.
Wherein:
The culture of communication requires not only compliance with the norms and rules of speech culture (verbal and non-verbal), but also knowledge of the communication situations themselves in a broad sense and speech etiquette (customs, rituals, etc.);
The culture of speech takes into account and demonstrates the culture of the individual and the culture of relationships between people;
A culture of speech may presuppose a pragmatic effect that will be embodied in a non-speech form of a culture of communication;
The culture of communication presupposes that communicators can use not only the literary language, within the framework of which the culture of speech is limited, but also other varieties of language that are beyond the literary.
So, the very essence of culture requires a person to have proficiency in speech, and from a cultured person - fluency in speech, that is, knowledge of linguistic and non-linguistic means that ensure optimal communication, the ability to vary them and choose the most effective ones in accordance with all the components of the communication situation.
Chapter 2. Text in the structure of communication
1. WHAT IS SPEECH ACTIVITY
What is speech activity?
A person is engaged in various types of activities, masters them in order to live and work, acquire knowledge and master skills, the need for which is determined by the nature of the social role chosen by one or another member of society in the process of solving vital problems.
Human activity is different in its goals, objectives, content, methods of obtaining results, etc. So, it is quite obvious that, say, the nature of the activity of a weaver is largely different from the nature of the activity of a journalist, teacher, preacher, administrator, etc.
And these differences are due, in addition to other factors, primarily to the fact that the activity of a journalist, teacher, preacher, administrator is directly related to a person’s ability to communicate, to the ability to achieve one’s goal with the help of speech actions that are purposeful in nature.
In other words, the activities of a weaver and a journalist can be contrasted on the basis of non-communicativeness and communicativeness, which, of course, is a largely conditional opposition.
In real practice, communicative and non-communicative human activities proceed in unity, since it is difficult to imagine the process of activity without verbal communication between the people involved in this activity. However, the degree and significance of the communicative side (its communicativeness) largely determines its character as a whole.
Thus, a person’s ability to communicate, mastery of the communicative side of activity is a necessary condition for its effectiveness, efficiency and success.
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n1.doc
BBK81.2R I76
Ippolitova N. A.
Text in the system of teaching the Russian language at school: A textbook for pedagogical students. universities - M.: Flinta, Nauka, 1998. - 176 p.
ISBN 5-89349-076-2 (Flint)
ISBN 5-02-011332-8 (Science)
The manual analyzes various approaches to the use of text in Russian language lessons, reveals the essence of the principle of studying language units on a text basis and ways of its implementation in the practice of school teaching. The book contains not only theoretical material, but also practical recommendations aimed at improving the methods of studying grammar in school.
The manual is addressed to students of pedagogical universities, but it is also of interest to teachers of the Russian language.
© Flint Publishing House, 1998
ISBN 5-89349-076-2 (Flint) ISBN 5-02-011332-8 (Science)
When studying the Russian language at school, constructing phrases, sentences, grouping them in the process of creating an independent statement, their correct spelling and punctuation are a universal and most common method of developing various skills.
In each section of the Russian language course, the student is brought to the text, since all the analyzed phenomena are interesting and significant not only in themselves, being facts of such unique system, as a language, but also as components of any text that is created or perceived in the course of communication. Consequently, knowledge of linguistic phenomena in Russian language lessons cannot become an end in itself. It should bring students to a new level in mastering the means of communication: from intuitive language proficiency to conscious, correct, skillful use various means language when solving relevant communicative problems.
However, in our opinion, despite the rich methodological heritage, the practice of school teaching of the Russian language still remains in such a situation when the processes of studying language units and the formation of students’ speech skills develop in parallel, with little contact with each other. So, for example, in grammar lessons, schoolchildren receive a sum of knowledge about the meaning, structure and even the peculiarities of using all units of this level in speech, but at the same time, as proven by many researchers, even the grammatical structure of students’ speech does not change significantly, not to mention the actual communication skills. As a result, a paradoxical situation arises: students can analyze linguistic phenomena, recognize them among other phenomena, list their characteristics, name their properties and capabilities, but at the same time all this knowledge is not transferred to the sphere of practical activity. Students are still helpless in solving even basic problems of a speech (communicative) nature. Figuratively speaking, the guys in this case are like “builders” who know what to build from, are familiar with the construction
The capabilities and features of all building materials, but they can’t build anything from them, they don’t know how. What is the reason for this situation?
Without dwelling on all possible answers to the question posed, we will make only one assumption in this regard. In our opinion, in Russian language lessons the text is not used enough as a didactic unit. But it is the text that is the structure, the basis that unites all the elements of language, all its units into a specific, coherent system. It is in a text intended for communication that all linguistic units are presented in a natural situation, in a natural environment. In addition, in the text, linguistic units acquire a new coloring and new text-forming functions. Ignorance of these functions leads to the inability to use them in independent speech activity. In short, the text reveals new properties of the language units being studied and presents students with the highest level of their knowledge, which opens the way to improving speech skills. As a didactic unit, the text will allow us to merge two important areas in the study of the Russian language at school: knowledge of the language system and knowledge of the norms and rules of communication, speech behavior in various life situations.
Under what conditions does a text become a unit of learning? How to use it to achieve organic unity in the study of language as a system and the development of students' communicative skills? And is it possible to achieve this? One of the possible answers to the questions posed is contained in this manual, which will help attract the attention of students of pedagogical universities to current problems of methodological science.
Let's consider, firstly, what a text is, and secondly, let's analyze the experience of using text in Russian language lessons that has been accumulated in the theory and practice of teaching the Russian language at school.
PLACE OF TEXT IN THE LANGUAGE SYSTEM
Two approaches to understanding the nature of text
So what is text? Although everyone has an intuitive idea of what a text is (and this idea was formed a long time ago), nevertheless, at present there is no single point of view on what class of phenomena it should be correlated with: whether it should be considered a unit of language, the highest level of linguistic system, standing above the sentence, or consider the text as a purely speech phenomenon, since it is generated in the process of communication and is a product of speech activity.
In this regard, one direction in the study of text is based on knowledge of the grammatical nature of the text, a description of its grammatical features, since the text in this case is characterized as a phenomenon that occupies the highest level in the system of linguistic units.
Another direction in the study of text is related to its attribution to phenomena of a speech nature, and therefore, when describing a text, emphasis is placed on such features that reveal its communicative capabilities. This difference in starting positions in text studies is reflected in the definitions of text contained in the linguistic and methodological literature.
Let's compare some of these definitions. This is how I. R. Galperin defines the text: “A text is a work of the speech-creative process, possessing completeness, objectified in the form of a written document, literary processed in accordance with the type of this document, a work consisting of a name (title) and a number of special units ( superphrasal unities), united by different types of lexical, grammatical, logical, stylistic connections, which have a certain purposefulness and pragmatic attitude" 1 .
A text, according to G.V. Kolshansky, is a connection of at least two statements in which a mini-
0 Galperin I. R. Text as an object of linguistic research. - M., 1981.- P. 18.
small act of communication - transfer of information or exchange of thoughts between partners 1.
“A text is a written speech work, owned by one participant in communication, complete and correctly formatted” 2 - this is the point of view of N.D. Zarubina.
L. M. Loseva identifies the following features of a text: “1) text is a message (what is communicated) in written form;
the text is characterized by its content and structure
perfection;
the text expresses the author’s attitude to what is being communicated (av
Tor installation).
Isolating the characteristics of a text, O. I. Moskalskaya specially emphasizes the following provisions: “The main unit of speech expressing a complete statement is not a sentence, but a text; a sentence-statement is only a special case, a special type of text. The text is the highest unit of the syntactic level." And further: “The basis of specific speech works - texts - are the general principles of text construction; they do not relate to the area of speech, but to the language system or linguistic competence. Consequently, the text must be considered not only a unit of speech, but also a unit of language” 4.
Analysis of the above definitions shows that all researchers strive, firstly, to determine the place of the text in the system of language or speech, and secondly, to isolate the actual textual categories inherent only in this unit. With all the differences between these definitions, it is obvious that they have a lot in common. First of all, the text is considered as a speech-creative work, as a product of speech, as the basic unit of speech. Consequently, for all researchers it is indisputable that the production of texts and their comprehension occurs in the process of communication or to achieve a goal.
1 See: Kolshansky G.V. Linguistic and communicative aspects of speech communication // Foreign languages at school. - 1985.- No. 1. - P. 10-14.
^)3arubina N. D. Text: linguistic and methodological aspects. - M., 1981.- P. 11.
3 Loseva L. M. How the text is constructed. - M., 1980. - P. 4.
4 Moskalskaya O. I. Text grammar. - M., 1981. - P. 9.
Lay communication. Further, everyone agrees that the text, as a rule, is realized in written form, that the text is a complete, complete work and, finally, that the text has its own internal structure, a certain structure, has means of coherence of its parts that are not allow it to “scatter” into separate sentences.
It would seem that there are no significant differences in approaches to understanding the nature of the text among scientists. However, this impression is deceptive. The differences relate primarily to the question of which system the text belongs to: the system of language or speech. No one doubts that this is a phenomenon of a speech nature: the text is created to realize the goals of communication and is always associated with the act of communication. And it is precisely this circumstance that is the main indicator for many researchers in deciding which system the text belongs to. The obvious correlation of the text with the act of communication, its speech-creative nature, and the functional orientation of textual activity would seem to convince us that the text is, first of all, a speech phenomenon and only a speech phenomenon.
However, many researchers (I.R. Galperin, O.I. Moskalskaya, E.I. Shendels, etc.) adhere to a different point of view. In their opinion, a text is a modeled unit of language 1, a microsystem functioning “in society as a basic linguistic unit”, possessing semantic communicative completeness in communication 2, “the original primary value.”
This understanding of the text is confirmed by the possibility of typing “the real variety of text forms and structures of public speech” 4, a description of such typified contexts, the main communicative types of speech (speech registers), types of information contained in texts, etc. Here, for example, is how to solve the problem of typing text structures in the research of G. A. Zolotova.
Based on the description of the linguistic organization of texts, G. A. Zolotova identifies two types of text (speech), or speech registers:
(at Moskalskaya O.I. Text grammar. - M., 1981. - P. 11.
2 See: Kolshansky G.V. Communicative function and structure of language
ka. - M., 1984.- P. 35.
3 See: Shendels E. I.
// Foreign languages at school. - 1985. - No. 4. - P. 16-21.
4 See: Zolotova G. A.
riy. Text and context. - M., 1984. - P. 164.
Illustrative and informative. Each of these registers has certain characteristics. Thus, the pictorial register is characterized by the complexity of temporal meanings, the observability of specific actions, etc. The speaker reports what he saw. The informative register is characterized by the simplicity of temporary values and the unobservability of action. The main thing in this case is the message about the result of an action or about the timeless qualities and relationships of objects. The speaker reports what he knows about this or that phenomenon or fact. Based on the correlation of the main features of speech registers with text genres, the basis of which is the social-communicative function, G. A. Zolotova identifies the following communicative types, i.e. varieties of figurative and informative registers: figurative-narrative, figurative-descriptive, informative -narrative, informative-descriptive, informative-logical, evaluative-qualifying.
“Speech blocks of figurative and informative registers...,” concludes G. A. Zolotova, “are those conconstituent units, from which texts for various communicative purposes are composed (or into which they can be divided)” 1 .
This approach to the description of texts indicates that the text acts not only as a specific unit associated with a real act of communication, but also as an abstract unit of language at the highest level, “which represents the subject of the theory of the linguistic ability of a native speaker” 2. In this regard, along with the term text the term appeared in linguistic literature dis-ZHUyos, i.e. the observable, concrete manifestation of language in speech, the implementation of text in speech. Thus, the text is what exists in language, and discourse is the text realized in speech.
Based on what has been said, it is legitimate to analyze how the text relates to other units of language, if we take as a basis the position about the linguistic (and not just speech) nature of the text. This issue is most fully considered in studies that describe the facts and phenomena of language as “components
1 See: Zolotova G. A. On the issue of constitutive units of text
// In the book: Russian language. Functioning of grammatical categories
riy. Text and context. - M., 1984. - P. 167-170.
2 Karaban V. I. Perceptual implications of text grammar // In
book: Psychological and linguistic nature of the text and features
ty of his perception / Ed. Yu. A. Zhluktenko and A. A. Leontyeva. -
Kyiv, 1979.- P. 76.
V
Meaningful, purposeful and cognitively correct, meaningful communication" 1 . This direction in linguistics is called communicative linguistics. “The subject of communicative linguistics is the study of the actual structure of language, the general laws of the organization of speech communication: the interaction of the semantic and syntactic structure of an utterance, the laws of text construction..., the structure of utterances and texts...” 2. In other words, the peculiarity of the study of linguistic means in this case is that they are considered in real speech acts.
Due to the fact that in all studies of communicative linguistics the basic unit of not only speech, but also language is recognized as a text, “uniting units of all lower levels by a common design, goals and conditions of communication” 3, the relationship of text with units of other levels is presented as follows. The meanings of all language units are realized in the text, which creates conditions for the existence and manifestation of the meanings of these units. It is in the text that all means of language become communicatively significant, communicatively conditioned, united into a specific system in which each of them most fully manifests its essential features and, in addition, reveals new, text-forming functions. Consequently, the final purpose of each unit of language is “the contribution that it makes to the formation of a text-message” 4.
This leads to another conclusion: language units, combining into sentences and groups of sentences, form components of the text, its structural elements. “Words, concatenations of words, concatenations of phrases, connections of sentences, connections of complex sentences - all these linguistic structures have their own logical base, and their functioning in the chain of information exchange is based on the logical-conceptual activity of consciousness” 5 . In communication, all units of language, uniting in certain
1Kolshansky G.V.
M., 1984.- P. 6.
2 Ibid. - P. 10.
3 Bukhbinder V. A. About some applied and theoretical aspects
strange languages. - Kyiv, 1978. - P. 30-31.
4 Ibid. - P. 37.
5 Kolshansky G.V. Communicative function and structure of language. -
M., 1984.- P. 35.
New structures become a link in the communication process, rather than isolated units.
In this regard, it is even proposed to consider the level structure of language “from above”, from the standpoint of the entire text, and to see in a new way the correlation between units of language and speech. So, for example, in the cited work of V. A. Buchbinder, this correlation is described - from the standpoint of the entire text 1. In this regard, the author, highlighting the levels of language (phonetic, morphological, lexical, syntactic), also designates the text level. Each of the language levels corresponds to language and speech variants. Thus, at the morphological level, root morphemes, word-forming and inflectional morphemes (language variants) function. They correspond to speech variants - allomorphs. The syntactic level is represented by phrases and sentences (language options), which correspond to syntagmas and phrases (speech options).
The text level is represented by phrasal units and ensembles, which form the text.
Thus, according to the author, language variants are transformed into speech ones, and the text level combines both linguistic and speech properties of various units, which makes it possible to qualify it both as a unit of language and as a work of speech at the same time.
Consequently, the text is constructed from speech variants of various levels, into which linguistic units are transformed in the process of communication. It is characteristic that to designate speech variants, special terms are used that are correlated with the names of the corresponding language variants, but do not duplicate these names.
Consequently, for many researchers, sentences and phrases, for example, are not synonyms, but names of different phenomena, because sentences are something that exists outside the text, and a phrase (other names: utterance, texteme) is an element of the text, its nodal unit, facing towards communication. Even if researchers use the same term to designate a sentence as a unit of syntax and a sentence as a link in the text, then in any case they emphasize the difference in their linguistic nature and functional purpose.
And one more observation based on the analysis of the correlation between units of language and speech. Language options, I serve-
" Cm.: Bukhbinder V. A. On some theoretical and applied aspects of text linguistics // In: Text linguistics and teaching
P. 37.
foreign languages. - Kyiv, 1978. 10
These or other levels of language, in the process of communication, participating in the construction of the text, acquire new properties and functions and become elements of the text. Thus, the text synthesizes linguistic and speech variants of all levels, “combines linguistic essences and speech properties. It is both a unit of language and a product of speech” 1. In our opinion, this is a very significant conclusion, convincingly illustrated and of important methodological significance.
The solution to the question of the nature of the correlation of the text with the language system also determines some other disagreements among scientists in understanding its nature. Thus, researchers who study text as an element of the language system consider it as a static object, as a result of speech activity. Scientists who correlate a text with a specific speech act study primarily the mechanisms of text formation, the mechanisms of its generation. However, there are no significant contradictions in these approaches.
In fact, everyone recognizes and realizes that in language there is a special formation, a special phenomenon, in the words of M. M. Bakhtin, a “coherent sign complex” - a text that is constructed according to the laws of the language, containing the lexical means necessary for this purpose, the corresponding pronouns, temporary and modal forms, which can be reproduced and repeated when constructing other texts. These are constructed texts, imaginary texts, like sentences in a grammar, behind them there is a system of language. In order to become a unit of communication, this “sign complex” must become a statement, that is, a unit that has an intention, substantive content, completeness, meaning (and not just meaning). An utterance requires a response of understanding, and therefore exists only in a series of other utterances. “An utterance,” writes M. M. Bakhtin, “is determined... by its relationship... directly to other utterances within a given sphere of communication. Outside of this relationship, it does not really exist (only as a text)” 2.
Thus, the same “sign complex” can be analyzed in different ways: as a product of speech activity, a text constructed according to a special model, realized in certain speech situations, and as a statement,
1Bukhbinder V. A. About some theoretical and applied aspects
takh of text linguistics // In: Text linguistics and foreign teaching
strange languages. - Kyiv, 1978. - P. 35.
2 Bakhtin M. M.
M., 1979.- P. 30.
L
Formed in a series of other statements that are generated in the process of communication and correlate with each other on the basis of a common design and the desire for mutual understanding of the participants in communication. In this case, we must proceed from the fact that it is in the process of communication that certain types of utterances are formed, that is, speech genres that, according to M. M. Bakhtin’s definition, have “certain and relatively stable typical forms of constructing the whole"(emphasis added by the author)". Consequently, any coherent sign complex can be considered both in the language system, as a grammatical phenomenon, and "in general, an individual utterance and speech genre", as a speech phenomenon. These two points of view "should not be mutually impenetrable to each other each other and should not simply mechanically replace each other, but should be organically combined... on the basis of the real unity of the linguistic phenomenon." 2 This idea of M. M. Bakhtin seems especially fruitful in methodological terms, because it allows us to eliminate the imaginary contradiction in understanding the nature of the text and find an appropriate way to analyze both individual units of language and units associated in a sign complex. Therefore, the following provisions of M. M. Bakhtin’s research are no less important for us: “We learn the native language - its vocabulary and grammatical structure - not from dictionaries and grammar, but from specific statements... We acquire the forms of language only in the forms of statements and together with these forms. Forms of language and typical forms of utterance, i.e. speech genres, come into our experience and into our consciousness together and in close connection with each other. Learning to speak means learning to construct statements... Speech genres organize our speech almost in the same way as it is organized grammatical forms(syntactic)" 3. Consequently, “the study of an utterance as real unit of speech communication will allow us to more correctly understand the nature of language units (as systems - words and sentences)” 4.
Let us add to this that the object of study at school can be, first of all, typified statements extracted from the situation of real speech communication, but conditionally correlated with it.
1Bakhtin M. M. The problem of text in linguistics, philology, etc.
in the humanities // In the book: Aesthetics of verbal creativity. -
M., 1979. - P. 257.
2 Ibid. - P. 244.
3 Ibid. - P. 257.
4 Ibid. - P. 245.
Thus, the text (statement) will be analyzed as a product (result) of speech activity, but taking into account those mechanisms and conditions that determine its structure and content as a whole.
Based on the above, it can hardly be argued that the text is objectified only in the form of a written document. Communication is realized both in written and oral form. Consequently, the subject of analysis should be not only written statements (texts), but also samples of spoken speech, which can be presented to students in gramophone and magnetic tape recordings, as well as in the form of excerpts from literary and journalistic works.
Structural elements of text
All units of language, entering the text, contribute to the communication process. But, of course, the main element of the text is the sentence (statement, phrase, texteme). A sentence in a text is recognized and perceived not by itself, but “in relation to its connections with other sentences, as part of the whole, as a component, a “cell” of the text” 1 . This is the minimum communicative unit of the text, in the words of G.V. Kolshansky, “the lower link of the text.”
It should be taken into account that when constructing a text, we select sentences “from the point of view the whole(emphasis added by the author) a statement that is presented to our verbal imagination and which determines our choice. The idea of the form of the whole utterance, that is, of a certain speech genre, guides us in the process of our speech” 2.
Thus, in itself, outside the whole utterance, a sentence is not a communicative unit, because it, as a rule, does not have semantic fullness: “sentences are not exchanged, just as words... and phrases are not exchanged, statements that are constructed are exchanged.” using language units: words, phrases, sentences..." 3.
1Shendels E. I. Text grammar and sentence grammar //
Foreign languages at school. - 1985. - No. 4. - P. 16-21.
2 Bakhtin M. M. Aesthetics of verbal creativity. - M., 1979. - P. 261.
3 Ibid. - P. 253.
In the structure of the text, individual sentences can be combined into groups, which are given different names by different researchers: phrasal unities and phrasal ensembles (V.A. Buch-binder); superphrasal unities; complex syntactic whole; union textem (E. I. Shendels); prose stanza (G. Ya. Solganik). The most common designation for a group of sentences related in meaning is a complex syntactic whole (CCW) and a superphrasal unity (SFU). These are complex structural unities, consisting of “more than one independent sentence”, possessing “semantic integrity in the context of coherent speech” and acting “as part of a complete communication” 1.
It should be noted that not all sentences in the structure of the text are combined into groups; there are also so-called free sentences that are not included in the group, but are nevertheless connected with the group by internal semantic relations.
These are sentences that contain various author’s digressions and comments. Such sentences are a link between two SSCs (SFU), a means of denoting a new micro-topic.
In addition, in the text, some researchers highlight so-called communicatively strong sentences, the understanding of which is possible without reference to the content of other sentences. Such proposals are to a certain extent isolated from surrounding structures and are not included in the SSC (SFE) 2. However, the semantic content of the text unites all sentences and SSCs into a single whole.
In turn, groups of sentences are also combined into larger blocks, which in different studies are called either textual or communicative blocks, or predicative-relative complexes, or fragments.
Even larger associations are associated with such text segments as paragraph, section, part, chapter 3.
Of significant methodological importance is the selection of a paragraph, the content and compositional structure of which has great explanatory power and allows students to demonstrate many of the rules for constructing the text as a whole. As a rule, only one topic is covered in a paragraph. From this price
Liu, it is clearly, prominently emphasized in the central sentence, with which all other sentences are closely related. There are various ways to distribute the content of the central sentence, which determine the structure of the paragraph as a whole.
The selection of STS and paragraphs in the structure of the text (statement) is essential for the methodology of teaching language to students: “STS and paragraph are intermediate links, without mastering which students experience difficulties in the transition from skills and abilities in constructing sentences to presentation and retelling as texts constructed according to certain internal (genre) laws."
Superphrasal unities, functioning in the whole text, can acquire greater communicative significance and be considered (analyzed) as more or less independent speech works. In this regard, O.I. Moskalskaya’s point of view on the structure of the text and the nature of text elements seems interesting. O.I. Moskalskaya speak! about the possibility of two approaches to the text and identifies two understandings of it. Firstly, there are so-called microtexts - complex syntactic wholes or super-phrase unities, that is, text-statements. Secondly, there are texts as whole speech works, communicative texts - macrotexts. Microtexts are syntactic units, they relate i syntactic phenomena. Macrotexts are a concept that cannot be defined within the framework of grammar. It seems that such a distinction between micro- and macrotexts once again confirms the position that the text is a syntactic structure, which allows it to be considered a unit of language and a speech work. In this regard, it is also important that microtexts are easily modeled. The microstructure model can be explained using the rules of grammar. All this allows us to consider (analyze) the microstructure of the text, abstracting from the conditions of communication, which is important for the development of speech (communication) skills in students. I The basis for the creation (and analysis) of macrotexts is a regular basis, determined by communicative principles, which depend on a specific activity situation 2.
1 See: Galperin I. R.
vaniya. - M., 1981.- P. 69.
2 See: Zarubina N. D. Text: linguistic and methodological expert
pects. - M., 1981.- P. 16-25.
3 See: Solganik G. Ya. Stylistics of the text. - M., 1997. - P. 48-82.
1 Meshcheryakov V. N., Okhomush E. A. Typology of educational texts. -Dnepropetrovsk, 1980. - pp. 21-22.
1 Cm.: Moskalskaya O. I. Text - two understandings and two approaches // ] book: Russian language. Functioning of grammatical categories. Text and context. - M., 1984. - pp. 154-162.
So, sentences and groups of sentences are the main communicative elements (units) of the text, forming a chain of communicative units: text - SFU (STS, union of text topics, groups of sentences, communicative blocks, paragraphs, text ensembles) - sentences (phrases, statements, textems). It is they who, first of all, make it possible to convey certain content with the help of information contained in the text, to express one or another meaning with the help of sentences, statements and super-phrase unities that contain a thought or message.
What role do all other system units of language play in the structure of the text? They perform a text-forming function and take part in its design not so much as communicative units, but as building elements 1. As a rule, they act as means of interphrase communication. “Interphrase connection is the connection between sentences, STS, paragraphs, chapters and other parts of the text, organizing its semantic and structural unity” 2. The semantic connection between sentences in the text is ensured by appropriate lexical and grammatical means. Most often, sentences in the text are connected by a chain or parallel connection. A chain connection is realized by repeating in one form or another any member of the previous sentence, or by deploying part of its structure in the subsequent sentence. Repetition in this case expresses the structural correlation of sentences, their closest connection.
“With a parallel connection, sentences are not linked to one another, but are compared, and thanks to the parallelism of constructions, depending on the lexical “filling”, comparison or opposition is possible” 3 .
It is obvious that not only individual sentences, but also groups of sentences - SSC (SFU) - must be connected in the text. The connection between groups of sentences and between parts of the text is carried out remotely, i.e. through the most informative, communicatively significant parts of the text. Thus, distant communication plays a significant role in the compositional design of the text, in the designation of its parts that serve the most optimal expression of the content or its perception.
1 See: Shendels E. I. Text grammar and sentence grammar
// Foreign languages at school. - 1985.- No. 4. - P. 16-21.
2 Loseva L. M. How the text is constructed. - M., 1980. - P. 9.
3 Solganik G. Ya. Syntactic stylistics. - M., 1973. - P. 132.
16
Each of these types of communication is implemented using appropriate language tools. Thus, to connect parts of text, groups of sentences, conjunctions, particles, introductory words are used, interrogative sentences and etc.
To implement a chain connection between individual sentences in STS (SFU), syntactic repetitions, synonyms, pronouns, words with temporal and spatial meaning, etc. are used. To implement parallel communication, a suitable means is parallelism in the construction of sentences, expressed in the use of verbs with a single time plan, the same word order, anaphoric elements, etc.
Even from this superficial analysis of the peculiarities of the connection between the communicative elements of the text, we can conclude that language units, functioning in the text, acquire new functions, new features. They cannot be detected when considering the structural and semantic characteristics of individual, isolated sentences.
Thus, the text has a certain structure, expressed in the interconnection of individual sentences and parts of the text. Every text has an appropriate compositional design, which is manifested not only in whole, complete speech works, but also in the structure of the STS (SFE).
Usually SSC (SFE) have a three-part composition: beginning, middle part, ending. In the beginning, the theme (micro-theme) of the text (statement) is formulated, in the middle part there is a development of this theme, and in the end the disclosure of the theme is summed up, which is emphasized by special linguistic means. Special linguistic means are used both in the middle part of the SSC, and, what is especially important, in the beginning. There are certain stable forms of expressing the beginning of a thought, the transition from one thought to another, and the completion of the topic (micro-theme) of a statement. All of them are described in more or less detail in the relevant linguistic and methodological literature 1.
The compositional design of the text helps to more optimally reveal its content and meaning, which, as a rule, are indicated (or can be indicated) in the title (title) of the text.
1 See: Loseva L. M. How the text is constructed. - M., 1980; Velichko L. I. Working on text in Russian language lessons. - M., 1983; Solganik G. Ya. Syntactic stylistics. - M., 1973; Zarubina N. D. Text: linguistic and methodological aspects. - M., 1981; Burvikova N. D. Typology of texts for classrooms and extracurricular work. - M., 1988, etc.
o-.1210 1 J
And, finally, any text created in the process of communication must be literary processed: it must be given the appropriate genre design, depending on the nature of the information that underlies its content (narration, description, reasoning), and the appropriate stylistic coloring - depending on the goals and conditions of communication.
As a rule, genre features and stylistic coloring of the text are also expressed by appropriate linguistic means.
Thus, in narration, to convey actions in their temporal connections, first of all, the possibilities of tense forms of the verb, means that provide a connecting listing of events, are used. In the description, which is based on spatial relations, linguistic categories are used that reveal the correlating characteristics of facts, phenomena, objects: nominal constructions, present tense forms of verbs, words with qualitative and spatial meaning. For reasoning, where the cause-and-effect relationships between facts, phenomena, events are revealed, the use of rhetorical questions is typical, subordinating conjunctions, emphasizing the nature of cause-and-effect relationships between sentences and parts of the text.
The stylistic coloring of the text is also created using certain linguistic units. For example, literary texts are characterized by the use of elements that emphasize the author’s attitude to what he is talking about: emotionally charged vocabulary, figurative and expressive means of language, words and constructions in figurative meaning and so on. On the contrary, scientific prose is dominated by categories that contribute to the objectification of information (vaguely personal constructions and constructions with the meaning of compatibility of action), as well as forms and constructions that ensure consistency and evidence of reasoning (rhetorical questions, introductory and modal words and so on.).
Thus, in order to create a correct text that corresponds to the goals and conditions of communication, you need to strive to ensure that following conditions: “... correspondence of the content of the text to its title (title), completeness in relation to the title (title), literary processing characteristic of a given functional style, the presence of superphrasal unities united by different... types of communication, the presence of purposefulness and pragmatic attitude" 1 .
1 See: Galperin I. R. Text as an object of linguistic research. - M., 1981.- P. 25.
The following text categories are identified and described in the literature: informativeness, completeness, integrity, coherence, retrospection, prospection, presupposition, consistency.
Let us briefly describe some of these categories of text.
The category of informativeness is inherent only to the text and is the most important among other text categories. As is known, it is expressed in the genres of narration, reasoning, and description. The content of any completed text is information, i.e. “the relationship of meanings and messages, giving a new aspect of phenomena, fact, event. This ratio is subject to change as the text progresses” 1. I. R. Galperin identifies the following types of information contained in the text: content-factual (SFI), content-conceptual (SCI), content-subtextual (SPI). Substantive factual information contains messages about facts, events, and processes. Content-conceptual - reveals the author’s understanding of the relationships between these phenomena, facts, and events. This is the author's intention and his meaningful interpretation. Content-subtextual information reveals hidden meaning extracted from the description of facts, phenomena, and events.
By understanding a text, we strive to reveal its conceptual information and penetrate into its deep structure 2 .
Adequate understanding of the text is ensured by presupposition. This is a special text category, a situational background that ensures the perception and understanding of the text, “revealing connections between statements and based on certain assumptions of the semantics of words, phrases and sentences included in the text” 3.
The text conveys a certain sequence of facts that unfold in time and space according to special rules depending on the content and types of the text.
In this regard, in the process of creating and comprehending a text, such text categories as retrospection are realized (elements that ensure the reader or listener returns to
1 See: Galperin I. R. Text as an object of linguistic research
vaniya. - M., 1981. - P. 38.
2 Ibid. - pp. 27-37.
3 Kolshansky G.V. Contextual semantics. - M., 1980. - P. 86.
The manual outlines the main issues of the Speech Therapy course program on the topic “Rhinolalia” (disorder of articulation of sounds and phonation)
The book provides a methodology for speech therapy work in the preoperative and postoperative period for the education of correct speech.
The manual is designed for students of defectology faculties of pedagogical universities and speech therapists of special institutions
FROM THE EDITOR
This textbook is intended for students of defectology departments of pedagogical institutes. It discusses the study and correction of speech disorders in children with rhinolalia.
The manual is based on materials from articles and manuscripts of the prominent Soviet speech therapist A. G. Ippolitova, one of the first to devote herself to working with this speech disorder. The effectiveness of the methodology outlined in the manual has been proven in practical work with big amount children.
The manual consists of six chapters and an appendix. It outlines the main issues of the program on the topic “Rhinolalia”. However, the main attention is paid to the description of one of the most common and intractable forms - open rhinolalia (although this does not exhaust the variety of rhinolalia). It is this form of disorder that presents the greatest difficulty in speech therapy practice (see Chapter 2, “History of the study of rhinolalia”).
The materials in Chapter 4 (§ 1, 2, 3) show how congenital clefts affect the physical and speech development child, it also describes the features of speech with rhinolalia, provides data on psychological characteristics children, i.e., it gives an idea of the formation of speech activity in these children. The chapter ends with § 4, which discusses the possibilities of correcting the defect in rhinolalia.
The conclusions formulated in Chapter 4 determine the direction of psychological, pedagogical and speech therapy influence on the formation of speech and personality of a patient with rhinolalia.
RHETORIC
Edited by
Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor ON THE. Ippolitova
"AVENUE"
Moscow 2008
UDC 808.5(075.8) BBK 83.7ya73 R55
3. S. Smelkova. Dr. ped. sciences, prof. - section I (chap. 1, 2, 3, 4); N. A. Ippolitova, Dr. ped. sciences, prof. - section II (chapter 1), sect. 2 (chapter 5) (together with J1. S. Yakushina);
T. A. Ladyzhenskaya, Dr. ped. sciences, prof. - section II (chapter 2);
E. L. Erokhin. Ph.D. ped. Sciences - Sec. II (ch. 3), sect. IV (chapter 4);
JI. E. Tumina, Dr. ped. sciences, prof. - section II (chapter 4);
M. R. Savova, Ph.D. ped. Sciences, Associate Professor - section III(Ch. 1);
3. I. Kurtseva, Ph.D. ped. Sciences, Associate Professor - section III (chapter 2);
3. S. Zyukina, Ph.D. ped. Sciences, Associate Professor - section III (chapter 3);
O. V. Filippova, Dr. ped. sciences, prof. - section III (ch. 4), sec. IV (chapter 3);
L. V. Salkova, Ph.D. ped. Sciences, Associate Professor - section III (chapter 5), sec. IV (chap. 2, 6);
L. V. Khaimovich, Ph.D. ped. Sciences, Associate Professor - section IV (Chapter I);
N. G. Grudtsyna, Dr. ped. sciences, prof. - section IV (chapter 5);
O. G. Usanova, Ph.D. ped. Sciences, Associate Professor - section IV (chapter 7);
L.S. Yakushina, Ph.D. ped. sciences, prof. - section II (chapter 5) (together with N.A. Ippolitova);
O. I. Marchenko, Doctor of Philosophy, Science - Appendix.
Rhetoric: textbook. / 3. S. Smelkova, N. A. Ippolitova, T. A. Lady-P55 female [etc.]; edited by N. A. Ippolitova. - M.: TK Welby, Prospekt Publishing House, 2008. - 448 p.
ISBN 978-5-482-01640-4
The textbook outlines the main theoretical and practical issues of the “Rhetoric” course. The specifics of pedagogical communication, the teacher’s speech activity, and the main pedagogical speech genres are revealed. The appendix contains four lessons of voice-speech training.
For students, graduate students and teachers of pedagogical universities, researchers and practitioners, as well as everyone interested in the culture of professional communication in the field of education.
ISBN 978-5-482-01640-4
UDC 808.5(075.8) BBK 83.7ya73
Ђ> Prospekt Publishing House LLC, 2008
Preface
This textbook summarizes the experience of the Department of Rhetoric and Speech Culture at Moscow Pedagogical State University (MPGU), associated with the theoretical justification and experimental development of a professionally oriented textbook on the subject, which is based on rhetorical knowledge.
Currently before high school There are new tasks, one of which is the formation of the communicative competence of a specialist - a future teacher, doctor, manager, lawyer, etc.
Communicative competence presupposes possession of communication skills in a certain professional team, the ability to create and interpret professionally significant statements (texts). And for this, the future specialist needs to know the specifics of professional communication in a particular field of activity, the norms of speech behavior that ensure the effectiveness and efficiency of solving the professional tasks facing him.
The main aspects of professional training - achieving learning goals, successfully solving various teaching, methodological and educational tasks - are possible only if the teacher knows the specifics of pedagogical communication, has professional speech, and norms of speech behavior that ensure the effectiveness and efficiency of the teacher's activities.
“Speaking and writing like a teacher for a teacher at the same time means establishing oneself as an individual in a given social environment, and most importantly, in our opinion, ensuring oneself, both professionally and interpersonally, equal contact in interaction with partners” (L. G. Antonov).
The sphere of education is an area of “increased speech responsibility”, since the word (speech) becomes the most important (if not the main) tool of the teacher’s activity, the main means of implementing all tasks of a strictly methodological and didactic nature.
Thus, an additional component related to mastering the experience of a teacher’s communicative and creative activity should be introduced into the content of a teacher’s professional training.
The problems of teaching professional communication to future teachers can be successfully solved if this training is based on a single concept, on the basis of a holistic course addressed to students of higher educational institutions.
The basis of this concept can be a rhetorical approach, focused on searches, theoretical understanding and practical implementation of optimal ways to master effective, successful, efficient professional speech.
In rhetoric, general laws and principles of speech behavior have been developed, and practical possibilities for their use in various communication situations have been described.
On the basis of the categories, laws and principles of general rhetoric, a model of professional speech training of future specialists within the framework of private - pedagogical - rhetoric can be created. A professionally oriented course in rhetoric allows you to develop the communicative competence of future specialists, which implies:
mastering rhetorical knowledge about the essence, rules and norms of communication, the requirements for speech behavior in various communicative and speech situations;
awareness of the situation of professional communication in the field of education, the characteristics of communicative and speech situations characteristic of the professional activities of students;
mastering the ability to solve communication and speech problems in a specific communication situation;
mastering the experience of analysis and creating professionally significant types of statements; development of a creatively active speech personality, able to apply acquired knowledge and developed skills in new, constantly changing conditions of manifestation of a particular communicative situation, capable of seeking and finding their own solutions to diverse professional problems.
These, in the most general form, are the basic provisions that define the purpose, objectives and content of rhetoric as an academic discipline at a pedagogical university.
These provisions determine the main approaches to the creation of this manual, which is to a certain extent a new type of educational literature.
In this regard, let us first note the peculiarities of the content of the material presented in it. Professionally oriented rhetorical training presupposes knowledge of the specifics of communication in a particular area, the features of implementation various types speech activity, determined by the nature of the profession, mastering experience in communicative and creative activities to create professionally significant pedagogical speech genres. The manual consists of four sections, which reveal the specifics of each of the named components of professional training of a specialist. We emphasize that the basic concepts - communication - speech activity - pedagogical speech genres - are revealed taking into account the specifics of the teacher’s profession, as evidenced not only by the title of the sections (“Pedagogical communication”, “Speech activity of a teacher”, “Professionally significant speech genres for a teacher”, “Culture of teacher’s speech activity”), but also their content.
Basic concepts and categories of the psychology of communication, rhetoric, theory of speech activity are considered in the process of their implementation in specific situations of professional communication, which makes it possible to show their specificity, determine how general principles, provisions, rules, laws, norms operate in appropriate communicative conditions, how they “work” in the course of solving a specific problem.
We also note the novelty of the methodological organization of the manual, which is manifested in the following:
the theoretical material of the manual is selected and presented taking into account the instrumental nature of the knowledge obtained in the course of pedagogical rhetoric (knowledge about methods of activity);
theoretical information in this regard is presented in a special way: the main provisions, conclusions, definitions of concepts, etc. are, as a rule, preceded or accompanied (in all cases) by an analysis of communicative and speech situations related to the teaching profession, illustrated with examples of the teacher’s speech behavior , supplemented with questions and tasks that activate the cognitive activity of readers;
theoretical material is presented in such a way that students (readers) become participants in those reflections to which the author attracts them in the process of presenting information, as a result of which the student acts as a subject (and not just an object) of communication in the author-reader system;
mastering theoretical material is organically connected with the implementation of various tasks, which are aimed not so much at reproducing what has been read, but at activating the mental, creative activity of readers (students), their awareness of the concepts and facts being studied;
The types of tasks available in the manual can be divided into the following groups: tasks, anticipatory chapter or section (? Let's think. Let's think); analytical tasks that are proposed to be completed while reading section of the manual (! Try to determine for yourself what means of popularization were used by the teacher in the fragment below); questions at the end of a chapter or paragraph, which allow you to update the main ideas of one or another part of the manual (??? How does speech activity differ from other types of activity); pedagogical tasks, in the course of solving which the student (reader) must demonstrate the ability to apply theoretical information in practical activities ( Imagine that you are explaining to fifth-grade students how speech sounds are formed. Using textbook material and other sources, prepare an explanation. What popularization techniques do you use? Why ?)
The manual contains an appendix, which is an essential and necessary addition to the theoretical part of the manual.
In conclusion, we emphasize that the textbook reflects the concept of the communicative-rhetorical scientific school (KRSH) of Professor T. A. Ladyzhenskaya, which is based on a rhetorical approach to the formation of speech skills in school and university.
Despite the fact that we are working on teaching aid A large number of authors took part, the commonality of their scientific positions is convincingly manifested in the unity of understanding of the tasks and content of rhetoric, in the similarity of approaches to solving the main problems of a theoretical and practical nature, in the coincidence of views on many methodological problems. Of course, the presentation of theoretical information in certain sections of the manual is characterized by different completeness, differences in the ratio of theoretical and practical material, and the manner of its presentation. But perhaps it is precisely these circumstances that ensure the absence of monotony and monotony in the structural parts of the text, which can have a positive effect on their perception.
SECTION I PEDAGOGICAL COMMUNICATION
Chapter 1
Specifics of pedagogical communication
? Let's think about it. Let's think about it
What type of profession is the teaching profession?
Let us use the classification of E. A. Klimov, who identified five types of profession: “man-nature”, “man-technology”, “man-artistic image”, “man-sign system”, “man-person”.
In what professions is the share of human speech activity especially high? Why are these areas of activity usually called areas of “increased speech responsibility”?
Is the thesis-conclusion legitimate: the form of interaction between people is determined by the peculiarities of the professional sphere of communication?
Give reasons for this thesis.
What is unique about the teacher’s speech behavior in the classroom?
1.1. Pedagogical communication, its functions
Communication is “a form of interaction between people” - this is how the sociological dictionary defines this concept succinctly. Communication - necessary condition and an integral element of any human activity, primarily collective activity.
To what extent does the definition of the main concept emphasize the significance of its professional characteristics? What general rules is such professionally oriented communication subject to and how specific are the forms of interaction between teacher and student that ensure the effectiveness of joint activities? What are the functions and scope of speech activity in pedagogical communication?
Let's think about these questions together. In answering them, we will try to identify the specifics of pedagogical communication, its types and styles.
First of all, it is necessary to define the basic concepts. What is the content of the concept "pedagogical communication"? Let us refer to the definition of the term proposed by A. A. Leontyev: “Optimal pedagogical communication is such communication between the teacher (and, more broadly, the teaching staff) with students in the learning process, which creates the best conditions for the development of student motivation and the creative nature of educational activities, for the proper formation the student’s personality, ensures the emotional climate of learning... ensures the management of socio-psychological processes in the children’s team and makes it possible to make maximum use of the teacher’s personal characteristics in the educational process.”
A more concise definition of the term can be proposed: pedagogical communication is the interaction between a teacher and students, ensuring motivation, effectiveness, creativity and the educational effect of joint communicative activities.
The basis of a teacher’s communicative activity is practical knowledge of ways to purposefully use speech means to solve problems of pedagogical communication. Such knowledge is the key to mastering a profession.
It is advisable to begin considering the role of speech skills in the teaching profession by defining the main functions of pedagogical communication.
Function(lat. function- execution) - “duty, scope of activity, purpose, role" - in this first meaning of the term, recorded in dictionaries, we will use the named concept. Let’s begin our discussion of the problem by identifying the main functions of pedagogical communication.
For a schoolchild, pedagogical communication is the main form of social and active exploration of the world. The teacher’s range of activities is not just the organization of the process of cognition, but also active participation in the process of formation of the personal “I” of the student. Pedagogical communication is multifunctional. The communicative strategy of teacher-student interaction is determined by the teacher who manages the process of cognitive activity, regulates the relationship between students, and creates an atmosphere of friendly and active verbal communication. This is a pronounced strategy of partnership, cooperation: the participants in communication are, as it were, on the same side of the activity, their relationships are mediated by a common goal and common participation in the performance of their duties (functions).
The mutual influence is obvious: the communicative strategy in some ways predetermines the functions of pedagogical communication, and in some ways is determined by them.
To characterize the functions of pedagogical communication, it is advisable to turn to generally accepted classifications, where the definition of functions is correlated with the purpose of the teacher’s activity, and the following functions are identified as the main ones: Gnostic(cognitive), constructive(selection and organization of educational material), organizational(organization of educational activities, choice of work forms) and educational.
The communicative nature of the teacher’s activity in the implementation of all these functions is obvious. Communication is the main form of knowledge; in communication the essence of the organizational and educational function is realized; finally, the constructive function correlates with the pre-communicative, preparatory stage of communication, when the selection and organization of material is made in accordance with the subject of speech (topic), with the communicative intention of the addresser (teacher) and with an orientation toward the addressee (students of a particular class).
This obligation of the communicative principle in each of the functions of communication is reflected in another generally accepted classification (communication in the broad sense of the word), proposed by the psychologist B.F. Lomov: information and communication(exchange of information, its perception), regulatory-communicative(organization of joint activities, correction of interaction methods), educational and communicative(emotional contact, empathy).
We use B.F. Lomov’s classification as a working one, but with some minor clarifications dictated by the specifics of pedagogical communication. Thus, communicative activity within the framework of the educational process presupposes the presence of two additional functions - normative (mastering the norms of speech behavior) and actualizing (realization in communication of the individual characteristics of a particular person) - which are present to one degree or another in each of the named main ones.
The terminological designation of functions we have adopted has the following content: information and communication function (gnostic, providing cognition) - a function of learning, acquiring subject knowledge and social experience; regulatory-communicative function - organizational, providing both the choice of strategy and methods of teacher-student interaction, and the specific organization of activity within the framework of the educational and speech situation; educational and communicative function - focused on the development of the student’s personal qualities, his emotional sphere, and the formation of aesthetic sensitivity and artistic taste.
In the process of educational and speech activity, the teacher comprehensively implements all functions of communication. The classification distinction allows us to deepen the characteristics of each function in the context of the whole - effective pedagogical communication.
1.2. Information and communication function of communication
What are the specifics of transmitting educational information? What ensures the successful implementation of the information and communication function of communication?
How important is this factor? "language of the subject"?- Let us refer to the authority of a psychologist: “Pedagogical communication in the “teacher-student” system is carried out through two channels. This is, firstly, a channel of direct interpersonal contact (subject-subject communication) and, secondly, a channel of communication through the subject (subject-object-subject) that is closely related to the first, but has its own specifics.
In methodological research recent years the concept of “subject language” consolidated this feature of the speech form of interpersonal communication, when the specifics of the subject, academic subject knowledge influence not only the content of speech (terminology, information specificity of the exact sciences or humanities), but also the selection of specific speech means of pedagogical communication.
The justification for the fundamental difference between the academic subject "Russian language" and other school subjects is given from two perspectives: for this subject, language is not just a "tool of learning" and a speech form of teaching the subject, but also an object of study, as well as a means of achieving the goal of learning - a means of development students' speeches. Thus, the importance of the communication channel “through the educational subject” increases significantly, and fluency in the “language of the subject” becomes the most important condition for pedagogical communication. This thesis, like the position about the thoroughness of the teacher’s subject knowledge, hardly needs additional argumentation.
The question of how to form subject knowledge, how to ensure both the required depth of knowledge acquisition and the creative nature of schoolchildren’s work - the possibility of their own scientific discoveries - is much more complex.” Communication is the key word in answering this question.
The speech form of realization of the gnostic function is dialogue, information contact of the subjects of communication, each of whom addresses precisely this partner, the listener. And the extent to which they will be equal, the extent to which the teacher will make his communicative leadership invisible and will be able to organize co-reflection, co-creativity, and his partner will be able to change the role of a student to the role of a co-author, depends on the effectiveness of learning.
The evidence of this truth appears in the catchphrases of teachers of different times and peoples: “You can’t teach, you can learn”(Confucius), “What does it mean to teach? “This means systematically encouraging students to make their own discoveries.”(G. Spencer). Spiritual interest, awareness of motivation, the ability for independent learning activities, “learning with passion” - these are the basis of success, say innovative teachers, our contemporaries.
What forms of scientific knowledge should a young teacher master first? What gnostic and communicative-speech abilities should be developed first of all? What is the role of experience in this? The minimum of subject knowledge is determined by the curriculum, the maximum by individual abilities and a person’s attitude to work. It is impossible to level the amount of knowledge. However, there are proven ways to increase knowledge and develop gnostic abilities - they are not worth reminding of.
Firstly, it is based on experience and intuition. Knowledge, developing into a skill and passing into the subconscious, becomes experience. The human brain is capable of forecasting and anticipation based on past experience. This helps him guess, correlate, and make the right decision. Therefore, first of all, one should develop the ability to anticipate, intuition. Intuition is based on a quick generalization based on personal experience, on association. Information that is already known to a person is synthesized (consciously and intuitively), summarized - the argumentation is reduced - and a judgment is expressed - an assumption. Intuition is always economical and ensures speed of mutual understanding between communication partners if the verbal form of the judgment is adequate to the content. This means that it is necessary to develop intuition, trust it and more boldly turn to the circle of associations that exist in a person’s memory.
Secondly, the development of gnostic abilities is the mastery of the “technology” of professional and pedagogical communication. Characteristics of methods of interaction in various situations will be presented in the final chapter of this section. What is also important here are general guidelines and the definition of the basic conditions (requirements) for the successful implementation of the information and communication (gnostic) function.
First condition- accuracy of transmission of scientific information at any degree of its adaptation for educational purposes. The adequacy of communicative means is achieved here thanks to the clarity and conciseness of theoretical definitions, and is ensured by speech techniques of joint activities of the teacher and students.
Let us comment from these positions on the recording of the teacher’s speech (explanation of new material on the topic “Pronoun as a part of speech”):
“Today we are studying the pronoun as a part of speech. You know that each part of speech has a generalized meaning, a system of morphological features and performs a specific syntactic role. The most interesting thing about a pronoun is its meaning. A noun denotes an object, an adjective - a sign of an object, a numeral - a quantity. And a pronoun can indicate objects, signs, quantities, but not name them... That is, the meaning of the pronoun is more general, more generalized than the meaning of other parts of speech. That’s why it’s called a pronoun - it’s used instead of a name” (quoted from the book by N.D. Desyaeva).
The speech is information-rich, the teacher uses:
A) comparison - appeal to the knowledge students already have (pronouns and other parts of speech);
B) repetition and intonation emphasis are the most meaningful words (subject, parts of speech)",
C) explanations of the semantics of a complex word through the semantics of its components (place - estate: instead of name), again supported by intonation means.
In our opinion, this is a fairly convincing example of the implementation of pedagogical principles of influence in a teacher’s speech: accessibility, evidence, associativity. On the other hand, the adequacy of speech means to the educational and communicative task can also be considered from the perspective of the interaction of communication partners. This is an orientation towards joint action (WE are studying), this is the manifestation of sensory means of influence in the teacher’s speech behavior - the creation of a relaxed atmosphere of communication.
The communicative competence of the teacher, his ability to navigate in a communication situation - second condition successful implementation of the gnostic function of communication. Now the “sense of the addressee” comes to the fore - the ability to anticipate his reaction both at the stage of lesson preparation and at the stage of direct educational communication.
Third condition- do not forget about two additional functions - normative and updating - in the context of the implementation of the information and communication function of communication.
The normative function involves schoolchildren mastering normative speech behavior directly in the process of communication. The teacher's educational and scientific speech is perceived as a model. That is why it is fundamentally important for a literature teacher to be fluent in the “language of the subject” in all its varieties: from scientific logic and the information capacity of the theoretical definition of a linguistic concept to the artistic expressiveness of a word about a writer.
The updating function, which means the actualization in pedagogical communication of individual speech characteristics of a person (within the framework of an educational speech situation), is successfully implemented if a teacher who knows his audience well is able to select from his personal arsenal of speech means those words and those forms of speech influence that will be most adequate and emotionally in tune with the given situation.
And finally, as general condition the implementation of all functions of educational communication and the open influence of the teacher’s speech should be called professional mastery of speech technique. Thus, the communicative-information function, connecting the content and form-building (speech) with the structure of pedagogical communication, provides a solution to the educational problem.
The teacher realizes the dialogical essence of the learning process in specific forms. His speech will have an active impact if it is addressed to the mind and feelings of the student, if it is perceived as an alloy of thorough subject knowledge, communication skills and expressiveness of the spoken speech.
??? 1. Justify the synonymy of the use of two terms denoting the function of communication: information-communicative and gnostic.
* 2. Read the judgment of the classic teacher A. Disterverg: “...knowledge in the proper sense of the word is impossible to impart. You can offer, suggest to a person, but he must master them through his own activity... He must independently embrace, assimilate, and process everything.” Comment on your understanding of this thesis.
Comment on the implementation of the Gnostic function of communication based on a fragment of a teacher’s teaching speech:
« General value of all related words is contained in the root. How to understand: " General meaning related words"? Each of the words they wrote down has its own lexical meaning (remember their interpretation), but all the words of the first column in their meaning are somehow related to the root "water" in the word water - "transparent colorless liquid", all the words of the second column are associated with the root “vod” in the word drive - “to control any object (machine)”” (according to E.I. Nikitina).
1.3. Regulatory-communicative (organizational)
communication function
How to organize joint educational activities? The organizational function can be defined as a core function, guiding the development of the communication process and connecting all its threads.
The implementation of this function begins at the pre-communicative stage of communication, when the selection and organization of educational material takes place (this aspect of the function is terminologically referred to as a constructive function). Modeling of the upcoming pedagogical communication is underway: selection of didactic materials necessary for the lesson, lesson planning, compilation of notes.
The effectiveness of communication largely depends on the thoroughness of the development of not only the content of the lesson, but also on the planning of its speech structure. First of all, the teacher should present the entire probabilistic picture of his educational interaction with the class, correlate the planned material, methodological techniques for its assimilation with the capabilities and characteristics of the communicative activity of specific participants in communication.
To what extent will the chosen form of educational interaction be optimal for solving the educational problem? How beneficial is it for the manifestation of a teacher’s personal creative potential? What can be the degree of adequacy of schoolchildren’s perception of educational information and what communication complications may arise?
The teacher’s oral speech during the lesson is “predictable” according to the strategic task (pedagogy of cooperation), but the interactive nature of pedagogical communication (the specific reaction of schoolchildren) makes significant corrections to the speech fabric of the lesson. Naturally, individual )speech style of the teacher.
| | | Here is a snippet from the beginning of the lesson:
Melnikov. Sit down. Well, be quiet... (He took the watch off his hand and put it in front of him). Last time we talked about the manifesto of the seventeenth of October... We talked about the deceptive sweetness of this state carrot... About how it was soon replaced by an outright stick... About the beginning of the first Russian revolution. Let's repeat this and move on. Syromyatnikov!
(G. Polonsky)
How does such a beginning of a lesson organize the upcoming educational work? Comment on the “subtext” of the gesture. What does listing the subtopics of the material from the previous lesson provide (a form of setting up a task to test students’ knowledge)? Determine the teacher’s communicative intention - its external manifestation (“ Let's repeat this and...") and internal meaning (“ Listen: I am determining the plan for your answer, be specific, don’t waste time”).
By organizing joint activities, the teacher constantly regulates the communication process, stimulates the participation of interlocutors in it, and corrects the solution of educational tasks - both planned and arising spontaneously. What is important here is mobility, internal readiness to change the tactics of verbal interaction with schoolchildren: an experienced teacher feels the reaction of the audience and can intuitively adjust this or that method or technique of speech influence.
There are no small details here. What, for example, could be the organization of the “communication space”: “Should the student get up or not get up when he answers?”
Here is E.N. Ilyin’s answer: “This way and that way,” I assured. Now I definitely declare - get up! And turn to the class... Talk to those who were previously behind your back and whom you, unwillingly, ignored, addressing your monologue to the teacher. Now - he is behind you, and those, of whom there are 30-40, look inquisitively at you. At any moment I will go out to them and together with them, equal to them and any of them, I will listen to you.” The function of the answer changes radically when it is truly for everyone. In this position, the student does not “answer”, but influences (!) with a word, leads behind him... The gift of speech is the ability to speak not only with language, but with the whole essence of one’s spiritual self. The word is a symbol of this spirituality. What is the first manifestation of social activity? In a word. In special skill and courage to prove it. This means that we must look for a way to the word... This is one of the levers for cultivating courage, the ability to express and defend one’s thoughts - in action. “Arise” is our educational principle, deliberately expressed in a slang word, as the most accurate and concise. It means: don’t be afraid to say out loud in class what worries you, but doesn’t take you away from the topic. Impersonal knowledge cannot be moral.
The most mobile regulatory-communicative function is manifested in organizing direct communication with students in the classroom. In the process of “recoding” notes from notes into oral speech, elements of speech improvisation naturally arise.
The activity of a teacher who organizes communication is essentially multifunctional: he maintains communicative leadership (but does not advertise it), stimulates the activity of students, predetermines the effectiveness of their actions by the very formulation of the educational task and the instructions that ensure its solution.
Repetition of what has been learned, presentation of new educational material by the teacher, or a joint search for a solution to an educational problem and any other forms of organizing pedagogical communication are predetermined by the general communicative strategy of the lesson and the specific goals of interrelated educational situations. This issue will be the subject of separate consideration in the fourth chapter of this section.
For now, we will limit ourselves to general conclusions. Taken together, the teacher’s monologue statements and his remarks in dialogue form the semantic core of the lesson’s educational discourse. The difficulty in organizing communication is to ensure that the teacher’s speech remains such a core, without exceeding the minimum required amount of time. Students should do most of the talking. Practical teacher and researcher V.F. Shatalov, having carried out preliminary calculations, formulated the initial data for solving the problem as follows: “The average time of active oral speech for each student during 6 lessons of a working day is two minutes. Finding an evidence-based way to increase this time means solving one of the most important pedagogical problems.”
This directly correlates with the organization of pedagogical communication. Within the framework of educational discourse, both quantitative characteristics and the interdependence of the speech behavior of all participants are of fundamental importance.
So, the successful implementation of the regulatory-communicative function of pedagogical communication depends on the development of the teacher’s communicative skills and on the orientation towards the normative nature of the very process of organizing educational relationships. A guideline for self-control and assessment of communication skills can be defined as follows: a teacher needs to master not only external techniques for dialogizing forms of teaching, but also verbal methods of influencing the awakening of a student’s thoughts, predicting its verbal expression in speech.
??? 1. V. A. Kan-Kalik called the initial period in organizing direct communication with the class (establishing contact) a “communicative attack.” Why do you think? What should a teacher “conquer”?
"Arise!"- How expressive is this definition of the principle of pedagogical communication? Return to the judgment of E.N. Ilyin and comment on it.
Comment on the manifestation of the organizational and communicative function of communication in the situation of setting a cognitive task:
1.4. Educational and communicative function of communication
The special significance of the educational and communicative function of pedagogical communication is reflected in the methodological requirements that apply to lesson planning. It is customary to formulate the goals of a lesson from three positions: teaching, educating, developing. They are interconnected and interdependent. The implementation of educational and developmental goals correlates with the educational and communicative function of communication.
The range of action of this function is very wide: the development of the student’s personal qualities (including communication abilities), the formation of the emotional sphere, the development of aesthetic sensitivity and artistic taste in the process of studying the humanities.
Why, when defining this function, is the second word - communicative - fundamentally significant?
Speech and mental activity of a schoolchild are considered in psychology as the most important personal qualities. In addition, it is speech, speech forms of expression of thoughts and feelings that make it possible to trace and evaluate the dynamics of the development of a student’s personal qualities.
What personal qualities are professionally necessary for a teacher to carry out the educational and communicative function of communicating with schoolchildren? In any form of communication with schoolchildren, the teacher always remains an educator and communicative leader. And the more natural this inequality of social roles is, the more invisible it is, the more successful the pedagogy of cooperation is. This is how M.P. Shchetinin talks about it.
“Spirituality develops in “slow communication,” noted Niktor Astafiev. - Unhurried, that is, extremely attentive, peering into a person’s world, penetrating into the essence of what he said, into the intonation structure of his speech, into the symphony of his movements. And the eyes of a child! How many feelings, states and experiences, motives of certain actions can be read in them. Take your time, teacher. Your speed reading is tantamount to frivolity and professional incompetence. Slow communication eliminates indifference. It requires the teacher to look actively, listen actively, think actively, act actively, and encourages students to do the same.”
The communicative actions of the teacher predetermine the educational effect of communication. Whether intentionally or unwittingly, the teacher’s speech and his manner of communication are perceived by schoolchildren as a model. It is difficult to overestimate the influence of such a sample on the formation interpersonal relationships in a team, to overcome psychological barriers to communication - uncertainty in the speech behavior of schoolchildren or their excessive emotionality and excessive verbosity.
The perception of the teacher’s speech reveals to the student the beauty of his native language, forms his “sense of words”, linguistic flair. Talented teachers understand this very well: “I would not have the right to be called an educator if at every step I did not reveal beauty, poetic power, aroma, the finest shades, the music of words, if schoolchildren did not want to express the most beautiful and intimate things in words... "(V.A. Sukhomlinsky).
Mastery of words - effective, expressive - will help the teacher create an atmosphere of collective aesthetic experience in a literature lesson. That atmosphere, without which it is impossible to fully comprehend and influence works of fiction. This is a special situation of aesthetic communication, when educational communication is predetermined by the specifics of the language of the subject, because in this kind of literature remains, first of all, a form of art. The artistic style of the literary work being studied cannot but influence the speech fabric of the lesson, cannot but form a sense of words, and cannot but have an ethical and aesthetic impact on the student.
So, all functions of pedagogical communication are important. A specific idea of their professional specificity helps to understand the indicative basis of a teacher’s effective speech behavior.
??? 1. Turning to dictionaries, compare the semantic meaning of the words "teacher", "mentor", "educator"" Prepare a statement about the organic combination of all functions of communication in the professional activity of a teacher.
2. An example of the communicative basis for the formation of aesthetic appreciation (unprepared speech) can be a comparison of works of various types of art - literature and painting.
Comment on a fragment of the text and try to continue the dialogue based on the comparison of “The Lay of Igor’s Campaign...” and the painting by V. M. Vasnetsov “After the massacre of Igor Svyatoslavovich with the Polovtsians.” (Recording from the lesson.)
Student:...it was not the furious battle that occupied the artist, not the noise of battles, not the ringing of swords... The artist depicted the silence after the battle as a mournful lament for the heroes of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.”
Teacher: Complete these thoughts using the text “Words...”
Student: Like a heroic outpost, Igor’s regiments stood on the border of their land and died for its honor.
And Igor said to his squad: “Brothers and squad, it’s better to be hacked to death than captured...”
Teacher: What new things have you learned about the artist Vasnetsov?
Student: The artist knew the text of the ancient Russian poem very well. He comments on it in detail using his visual means. But if the author of “The Lay...” at the end of the poem “sings glory” to Igor (and the princes), then the artist cries for the murdered.
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N. A. Ippolitova
Pedagogical rhetoric in questions and answers
Z. S. Smelkova, Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor – Div. I (1, 2, 3, 4);
N. A. Ippolitova, Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor – Div. II (chapter 1), sect. II (chapter 5) (together with L. S. Yakushina);
T. A. Ladyzhenskaya, Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor – Div. II (chapter 2);
E. L. Erokhina, Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor - Div. II (ch. 3), sect. IV (chapter 4);
L. E. Tumina, Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor – Div. II (chapter 4);
M. R. Savova, Ph.D. Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor – section III (chapter 1);
Z. I. Kurtseva, Ph.D. Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor – section III (chapter 2);
Z. S. Zyukina, Ph.D. Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor – section III (chapter 3);
O. V. Filippova, Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor – Div. III (ch. 4), sec. IV (chapter 3);
L. V. Salkova, Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor - Div. III (chapter 5), sec. IV (chap. 2, 6);
L. V. Khaimovich, Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor – Div. IV (chapter 1);
N. G. Grudtsyna, Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor – Div. IV (chapter 5);
O. G. Usanova, Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor – Div. IV (chapter 7);
L. S. Yakushina, Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor – Div. II (chapter 5) (together with N. A. Ippolitova).
© Design. Publishing house "Prometheus", 2011
Preface
Currently, higher education is faced with new tasks, one of which is the formation of the communicative competence of a specialist - a future teacher, doctor, manager, lawyer, etc.
Communicative competence presupposes knowledge of the norms of communication in a certain professional team, the ability to create and interpret professionally significant statements (texts). And for this, the future specialist needs to know the specifics of professional communication in a particular field of activity, the norms of speech behavior that ensure the effectiveness and efficiency of solving the professional tasks facing him.
The main aspects of professional training - achieving learning goals, successfully solving various teaching, methodological and educational tasks - are possible only if the teacher knows the specifics of pedagogical communication, has professional speech, and norms of speech behavior that ensure the effectiveness and efficiency of the teacher’s activities.
The sphere of education is an area of “increased speech responsibility”, since the word (speech) becomes the most important (if not the main) tool of the teacher’s activity, the main means of implementing all tasks of a strictly methodological and didactic nature.
Thus, an additional component related to mastering the experience of a teacher’s communicative and creative activity should be introduced into the content of a teacher’s professional training.
The problems of teaching professional communication to future teachers can be successfully solved if this training is based on a single concept, on the basis of a holistic course addressed to students of higher educational institutions.
The basis of this concept can be a rhetorical approach, focused on searches, theoretical understanding and practical implementation of optimal ways to master effective, successful, efficient professional speech.
In rhetoric, general laws and principles of speech behavior have been developed, and practical possibilities for their use in various communication situations have been described.
Based on the categories, laws and principles of general rhetoric, a model of professional speech training of future specialists within the framework of private pedagogical rhetoric can be created. A professionally oriented course in rhetoric allows you to develop the communicative competence of future specialists, which implies:
– mastering rhetorical knowledge about the essence, rules and norms of communication, the requirements for speech behavior in various communicative and speech situations;
– awareness of the situation of professional communication in the field of education, the characteristics of communicative and speech situations characteristic of the professional activities of students;
– mastering the ability to solve communicative and speech problems in a specific communication situation;
– mastering the experience of analyzing and creating professionally significant types of statements; development of a creatively active speech personality, able to apply acquired knowledge and developed skills in new, constantly changing conditions of manifestation of a particular communicative situation, capable of seeking and finding their own solutions to diverse professional problems.
The course of professionally oriented rhetoric is primarily practical - a prerequisite for the demand for rhetorical knowledge is its applied nature. The theoretical provisions of rhetoric are always aimed at solving real problems related to human life.
These, in the most general form, are the basic provisions that define the purpose, objectives and content of rhetoric as an academic discipline at a pedagogical university.
These provisions determine the main approaches to the creation of this manual.
The manual consists of four sections, which reveal the specifics of each of the named components of professional training of a specialist. We emphasize that the basic concepts - “communication”, “speech activity”, “pedagogical speech genres” - are revealed taking into account the specifics of the teacher’s profession, as evidenced not only by the title of the sections (“Pedagogical communication”, “Teacher’s speech activity”, “Professionally significant for the teacher, speech genres”, “Culture of the teacher’s speech activity”), but also their content.
Basic concepts and categories of the psychology of communication, rhetoric, theory of speech activity are considered in the process of their implementation in specific situations of professional communication, which makes it possible to show their specificity, determine how general principles, provisions, rules, laws, norms operate in appropriate communicative conditions, how they “work” in the course of solving a specific problem.
Despite the fact that a large number of authors took part in the work on the textbook, the commonality of their scientific positions is convincingly manifested in the unity of understanding of the tasks and content of rhetoric, in the similarity of approaches to solving basic problems of a theoretical and practical nature, in the coincidence of views on many methodological problems.
Section I
Pedagogical communication
Chapter 1
Specifics of pedagogical communication
What is pedagogical communication and what are its functions?What is the content of the concept of “pedagogical communication”? According to the definition of A. A. Leontiev, “optimal pedagogical communication is such communication between the teacher (and more broadly, the teaching staff) with schoolchildren in the learning process, which creates the best conditions for the development of student motivation and the creative nature of educational activities, for the correct formation of the student’s personality, ensures emotional climate of learning<…>, ensures the management of socio-psychological processes in the children’s team and makes it possible to make maximum use of the teacher’s personal characteristics in the educational process.”
A more concise definition of the term can be proposed: pedagogical communication– this is the interaction between a teacher and students, ensuring motivation, effectiveness, creativity and the educational effect of joint communicative activities.
The basis of a teacher’s communicative activity is practical knowledge of ways to purposefully use speech means to solve problems of pedagogical communication. Such knowledge is the key to mastering a profession.
Pedagogical communication is multifunctional. The communicative strategy of teacher-student interaction is determined by the teacher who manages the process of cognitive activity, regulates the relationship between students, and creates an atmosphere of friendly and active verbal communication. This is a pronounced strategy of partnership, cooperation: the participants in communication are, as it were, on the same side of the activity, their relationships are mediated by a common goal and common participation in the performance of their duties (functions).
The mutual influence is obvious: the communicative strategy in some ways predetermines the functions of pedagogical communication, and in some ways is determined by them.
To characterize the functions of pedagogical communication, it is advisable to turn to generally accepted classifications, where the definition of functions is correlated with the purpose of the teacher’s activity, and the following functions are identified as the main ones: Gnostic(cognitive), constructive(selection and organization of educational material), organizational(organization of educational activities, choice of work forms) and educational.
The communicative nature of the teacher’s activity in the implementation of all these functions is obvious. Communication is the main form of knowledge; in communication the essence of the organizational and educational function is realized; finally, the constructive function correlates with the pre-communicative, preparatory stage of communication, when the selection and organization of material is made in accordance with the subject of speech (topic), with the communicative intention of the addresser (teacher) and with an orientation toward the addressee (students of a particular class).
This obligatory nature of the communicative principle in each of the functions of communication is reflected in another generally accepted classification (communication in the broad sense of the word), proposed by psychologist B. F. Lomov: information and communication(exchange of information, its perception), regulatory-communicative(organization of joint activities, correction of interaction methods), educational and communicative(emotional contact, empathy).
The terminological designation of functions we have adopted has the following content: information and communication function (gnostic, providing cognition) - a function of learning, acquiring subject knowledge and social experience; regulatory-communicative function - organizational, providing both the choice of strategy and methods of teacher-student interaction, and the specific organization of activity within the framework of the educational and speech situation; The educational and communicative function is focused on the development of the student’s personal qualities, his emotional sphere, and the formation of aesthetic sensitivity and artistic taste.
In the process of educational and speech activity, the teacher comprehensively implements all functions of communication.
What are the conditions for the successful implementation of the information and communication function of communication?Pedagogical communication in the “teacher-student” system is carried out through two channels. This is, firstly, a channel of direct interpersonal contact (subject-subject communication) and, secondly, closely related to the first, but having its own specifics, a channel of communication through the medium of an educational subject (subject-object-subject).
The specifics of the subject, academic subject knowledge influence not only the content of speech (terminology, information specificity of the exact sciences or humanities), but also the selection of specific speech means of pedagogical communication.
Thus, the importance of the communication channel “through the educational subject” increases significantly and fluency in the “language of the subject” becomes the most important condition for pedagogical communication.
The speech form of implementation of the gnostic function is dialogue, informational contact between the subjects of communication, each of whom addresses precisely this partner, the listener. And the extent to which they are equal, the extent to which the teacher makes his communicative leadership invisible and is able to organize co-reflection, co-creation, and his partner is able to change the role of a student to the role of a co-author, determines the effectiveness of learning.
What forms of scientific knowledge should a young teacher master first? The minimum of subject knowledge is determined by the curriculum, the maximum by individual abilities and a person’s attitude to work.
Firstly, it is based on experience and intuition. Knowledge, developing into a skill and passing into the subconscious, becomes experience. The human brain is capable of forecasting and anticipation based on past experience. This helps him guess, correlate, and make the right decision. Therefore, first of all, one should develop the ability to anticipate, intuition.
Secondly, the development of gnostic abilities is the mastery of the “technology” of professional and pedagogical communication. What is important here are general guidelines and the definition of the basic conditions (requirements) for the successful implementation of the information and communication (gnostic) function.
First condition– accuracy of transmission of scientific information at any degree of its adaptation for educational purposes. The adequacy of communicative means is achieved here thanks to the clarity and conciseness of theoretical definitions, and is ensured by speech techniques of joint activities of the teacher and students.
On the other hand, the adequacy of speech means to the educational and communicative task can also be considered from the perspective of the interaction of communication partners. This is an orientation towards joint action (WE are studying), this is the manifestation in the teacher’s speech behavior of sensory means of influence - the creation of a relaxed atmosphere of communication.
The teacher’s communicative competence, his ability to navigate a communication situation – second condition successful implementation of the gnostic function of communication. Now the “feeling of the addressee” comes to the fore - the ability to anticipate his reaction both at the stage of lesson preparation and at the stage of direct educational communication.
Third condition– do not forget about two additional functions – normative and updating – in the context of the implementation of the information and communication function of communication.
The normative function involves schoolchildren mastering normative speech behavior directly in the process of communication. The teacher's educational and scientific speech is perceived as a model.
The updating function, which means the actualization in pedagogical communication of individual speech characteristics of a person (within the framework of an educational speech situation), is successfully implemented if a teacher who knows his audience well is able to select from his personal arsenal of speech means those words and those forms of speech influence that will be most adequate and emotionally in tune with the given situation.
And finally, as a general condition for the implementation of all functions of educational communication and the open influence of the teacher’s speech, professional mastery of speech techniques should be called. Thus, the communicative-information function, connecting the content and formative (speech) structures of pedagogical communication, provides a solution to the educational task.
What are the features of the implementation of the regulatory-communicative function of communication?The organizational function can be defined as a core function, guiding the development of the communication process and connecting all its threads.
The implementation of this function begins at the pre-communicative stage of communication, when the selection and organization of educational material takes place (this aspect of the function is terminologically referred to as a constructive function). Modeling of the upcoming pedagogical communication is underway: selection of didactic materials necessary for the lesson, lesson planning, compilation of notes.
The effectiveness of communication largely depends on the thoroughness of the development of not only the content of the lesson, but also on the planning of its speech structure. First of all, the teacher should present the entire probabilistic picture of his educational interaction with the class, correlate the planned material, methodological techniques for its assimilation with the capabilities and characteristics of the communicative activity of specific participants in communication.
By organizing joint activities, the teacher constantly regulates the communication process, stimulates the participation of interlocutors in it, and corrects the solution of educational tasks - both planned and arising spontaneously. What is important here is mobility, internal readiness to change the tactics of verbal interaction with schoolchildren: an experienced teacher feels the reaction of the audience and can intuitively adjust this or that method or technique of speech influence.
The most mobile regulatory-communicative function is manifested in organizing direct communication with students in the classroom. In the process of “recoding” notes from notes into oral speech, elements of speech improvisation naturally arise.
The activity of a teacher who organizes communication is essentially multifunctional: he maintains communicative leadership (but does not advertise it), stimulates the activity of students, predetermines the effectiveness of their actions by the very formulation of the educational task and the instructions that ensure its solution.
So, the successful implementation of the regulatory-communicative function of pedagogical communication depends on the development of the teacher’s communicative skills and on the focus on the creative nature of the very process of organizing educational relationships. A guideline for self-control and assessment of communication skills can be defined as follows: a teacher needs to master not only external techniques for dialogizing forms of teaching, but also verbal methods of influencing the awakening of a student’s thoughts, predicting its verbal expression in speech.
What is the significance of the educational and communicative function of communication?The range of action of this function is very wide: the development of the student’s personal qualities (including communication abilities), the formation of the emotional sphere, the development of aesthetic sensitivity and artistic taste in the process of studying the humanities.
Why, when defining this function, is the second word – communicative – fundamentally significant?
Speech and mental activity of a schoolchild are considered in psychology as the most important personal qualities. In addition, it is speech, speech forms of expression of thoughts and feelings that make it possible to trace and evaluate the dynamics of the development of a student’s personal qualities.
What personal qualities are professionally necessary for a teacher to carry out the educational and communicative function of communicating with schoolchildren? In any form of communication with schoolchildren, the teacher always remains an educator and communicative leader. And the more natural this inequality of social roles is, the more invisible it is, the more successful the pedagogy of cooperation is.
The communicative actions of the teacher predetermine the educational effect of communication. Whether intentionally or not, the teacher’s speech and his manner of communication are perceived by schoolchildren as a model. It is difficult to overestimate the influence of such a model on the formation of interpersonal relationships in a team, on overcoming psychological barriers to communication - uncertainty in the speech behavior of schoolchildren or their excessive emotionality and excessive verbosity.
Chapter 2
Types of communication: professional conditionality characteristics
What are the main types of communication?Types of communication are usually distinguished for different reasons. We will name and consider those that, in our opinion, are professionally significant and stand out for the following reasons:
1. According to the sign system of communication, which predetermines the method of communication: verbal (verbal) and non-verbal.
2. By the number of communication participants: interpersonal, group, mass.
3. According to the position of the communicants in space and time: contact and distant.
4. According to the external conditions of communication and compliance with the social roles of communicants: official and informal.
What is nonverbal communication?The main sign mechanism of communication is language - a system of sign units of a specific national language. This is a system of rules that allows you to use language signs to convey the meaning of information. Essentially, speech is a language in use: a sequence of language signs, organized according to its laws in accordance with the needs and conditions of communication.
The national language system is uniform. The semantics of a word, the meaning of grammatical or syntactic categories of language are impersonal and do not depend on the sphere and conditions of communication. Another thing is that in speech the same linguistic units can be perceived and decoded by the listener in different ways - depending on the understanding of the subtext of the statement, on the intonation of the speaker, on the expression of his eyes.
The perception of a word-sign is enriched or transformed by the simultaneous perception of a sign from another system - non-verbal (non-linguistic).
All non-linguistic signs are communicatively significant: being a concrete sensory form of manifestation of a person’s internal impulses and reactions, they perform an emotionally expressive function of communication, complementing and enriching the teacher’s speech.
The ability to “decode” non-verbal information – important condition communication efficiency and special skills professionally necessary for a teacher. The uniqueness of the multichannel impact on the listener of nonverbal means of communication makes them indispensable in the arsenal of pedagogical tools.
In the process of communication, nonverbal means can replace verbal information, they can duplicate it, but much more often the effect of complementing the meaning of the message occurs, increasing the impact: the speaker’s facial expressions and gestures, the tonality and melody of speech provide its expressiveness. Information comes through different channels, its perception is a holistic process: the student hears and sees the teacher.
The existing term “body language” (Allan Pease) T. A. Ladyzhenskaya specifies from the standpoint of pedagogical communication as a language “ appearance teachers." By stipulating a significant degree of reflexivity and involuntary signs of a person’s “body language,” all researchers talk about its social and situational conditionality.
The primary classification of the components of the system of nonverbal signs has a psychophysical basis. Let's start with such a component as proximics.
