On Relationship (Psychology of Interpersonal Relationships) Bertine, Eleanor. Close Relationships: Family, Friendship, Marriage. Toronto: Inner City Books, 1992. Sanford, John. The Invisible Partners: How the Male and Female in Each of Us Affects Our Relationships. New York: Paulist Press, 1980. Sharp, Daryl. Getting to Know You: The Inside Out of Relationship. Toronto: Inner City Books,

37. Forms of interpersonal relationships Positive interpersonal relationships (“to meet people”): 1) love is the most complex type of interpersonal relationships, expressed in a high degree of emotional positive attitude towards an object that stands out among others and

22. Concepts of communication and interpersonal relationships Among the factors that shape personality, in psychology they distinguish work, communication and cognition. Communication is a connection between people, during which mental contact occurs, manifested in the exchange of information, mutual influence,

Instability of interpersonal relationships Relationships are characterized by an alternation of extremes - from idealization to complete devaluation. In such situations, such people extremely quickly become disappointed in their chosen ones, who, as it seems to them, do not justify them

PRELIMINARY FORMULATION OF THE GENERAL LAW OF INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS Last summer I was thinking about a theoretical problem that had been tormenting me for a long time: is it possible to formulate in one hypothesis all the elements of relationships that contribute or, conversely, do not

Psychology of Interpersonal Relationships

For the first time in Russian literature, interpersonal (interpersonal) relationships were analyzed in 1975 in the book “Social Psychology”.

The problem of interpersonal relationships in domestic and foreign psychological science has been studied to a certain extent. The monograph by N. N. Obozov (1979) summarizes the results of empirical research by domestic and foreign specialists. This is the most in-depth and detailed study and currently remains relevant. In subsequent publications, little attention is paid to the problem of interpersonal relationships. Abroad, this problem is analyzed in reference books on social psychology. The most interesting joint study by T. Huston and G. Levinger is “Interpersonal Attraction and Interpersonal Relationships” (Huston, Levinger, 1978), which has not lost its significance to this day.

Nowadays, many works appear in the press that examine the problems of interpersonal and business contacts (business communication), and give practical recommendations for their optimization (Deryabo, Yasvin, 1996; Evening, 1996; Kuzin, 1996). Some of these publications are a popular presentation of the results of psychological research, sometimes without references or a list of references.

The concept of “interpersonal relationships”. Interpersonal relationships are closely related to various types public relations. G. M. Andreeva emphasizes that the existence of interpersonal relationships within various forms of social relations is the implementation of impersonal (social) relations in the activities of specific people, in the acts of their communication and interaction (Andreeva, 1999).

Social relations are official, formally established, objectified, effective connections. They are leaders in regulating all types of relationships, including interpersonal ones.

Interpersonal relationships- these are objectively experienced, to varying degrees perceived, relationships between people. They are based on the various emotional states of interacting people. Unlike business (instrumental) relationships, which can be either officially established or unsecured, interpersonal connections are sometimes called expressive, emphasizing their emotional content. The relationship between business and interpersonal relationships has not been sufficiently developed scientifically.

Interpersonal relationships include three elements - cognitive (gnostic, informational), affective and behavioral (practical, regulatory).

Cognitive element involves awareness of what is liked or disliked in interpersonal relationships.

Affective aspect finds its expression in various emotional experiences of people about the relationships between them. The emotional component is usually the leading one. “These are, first of all, positive and negative emotional states, conflict states (intrapersonal, interpersonal), emotional sensitivity, satisfaction with oneself, partner, work, etc.” (Obozov, 1979, p. 5).

The emotional content of interpersonal relationships (sometimes called valence) changes in two opposite directions: from conjunctive (positive, bringing together) to indifferent (neutral) and disjunctive (negative, separating) and vice versa. The options for manifestations of interpersonal relationships are enormous. Conjunctive feelings manifest themselves in various forms of positive emotions and states, the demonstration of which indicates a readiness for rapprochement and joint activity. Indifferent feelings involve manifestations of a neutral attitude towards a partner. This may include indifference, indifference, indifference, etc. Disjunctive feelings are expressed in the manifestation of various forms of negative emotions and states, which are regarded by the partner as a lack of readiness for further rapprochement and communication. In some cases, the emotional content of interpersonal relationships may be ambivalent (contradictory).

Conventional manifestations of emotions and feelings in forms and methods characteristic of those groups whose representatives enter into interpersonal contacts can, on the one hand, contribute to mutual understanding between the communicators, and, on the other hand, complicate interaction (for example, if the communicators belong to different ethnic, professional, social and other groups and use various non-verbal means of communication).

Behavioral the component of interpersonal relationships is realized in specific actions. If one of the partners likes the other, the behavior will be friendly, aimed at providing assistance and productive cooperation. If the object is not attractive, then the interactive side of communication will be difficult. Between these behavioral poles there is a large number of forms of interaction, the implementation of which is determined by the sociocultural norms of the groups to which the communicating people belong.

Interpersonal relationships are built vertically (between a manager and a subordinate and vice versa) and horizontally (between persons occupying the same status). The emotional manifestations of interpersonal connections are determined by the sociocultural norms of the groups to which the communicating people belong, and by individual differences that vary within the limits of these norms. Interpersonal relationships can be formed from the positions of dominance-equality-subordination and dependence-independence.

Social distance presupposes a combination of official and interpersonal relations that determines the closeness of the communicating people, corresponding to the sociocultural norms of the communities to which they belong. Social distance allows you to maintain an adequate level of breadth and depth of relationships when establishing interpersonal relationships. Its violation leads initially to disjunctive interpersonal relationships (in power relations up to 52%, and in equal-status relationships up to 33%), and then to conflicts (Obozov, 1979).

Psychological distance characterizes the degree of closeness of interpersonal relationships between communication partners (friendly, comradely, friendly, trusting). In our opinion, this concept emphasizes a certain stage in the dynamics of the development of interpersonal relationships.

Interpersonal compatibility- this is the optimal combination of psychological characteristics of partners that contribute to the optimization of their communication and activities. “Harmonization”, “coherence”, “consolidation”, etc. are used as equivalent words. Interpersonal compatibility is based on the principles of similarity and complementarity. Its indicators are satisfaction with joint interaction and its result. The secondary result is the emergence of mutual sympathy. The opposite phenomenon of compatibility is incompatibility, and the feelings it evokes are antipathy. Interpersonal compatibility is considered as a state, process and result (Obozov, 1979). It develops within a spatiotemporal framework and specific conditions (normal, extreme, etc.), which influence its manifestation. To determine interpersonal compatibility, hardware and technical techniques and homeostat are used.

Interpersonal Attraction- this is a complex psychological property of a person, which, as it were, “attracts” a communication partner and involuntarily evokes a feeling of sympathy in him. The charm of her personality allows her to win people over. A person's attractiveness depends on his physical and social appearance, ability to empathize, etc.

Interpersonal attractiveness promotes the development of interpersonal connections and evokes a cognitive, emotional and behavioral response in a partner. The phenomenon of interpersonal attractiveness in friendly couples is thoroughly disclosed in the research of N. N. Obozov.

In scientific and popular literature such a concept as "emotional appeal"- the ability of an individual to understand the mental states of a communication partner and especially to: empathize with him. The latter (the ability to empathize) is manifested in the responsiveness of feelings to various states of the partner. This concept is somewhat narrower than “interpersonal attractiveness.”

In our opinion, interpersonal attractiveness has not been sufficiently studied scientifically. At the same time, from an applied point of view, this concept is studied as a phenomenon of the formation of a certain image. In domestic science, this approach has been actively developing since 1991, when there was a real need for psychological recommendations on forming the image of a politician or business person. Publications on this issue provide advice on creating an attractive image of a politician (in appearance, voice, use of verbal and non-verbal means of communication, etc.). Specialists on this problem have appeared - image makers. For psychologists, this problem seems promising.

Taking into account the practical significance of the problem of interpersonal attractiveness in educational institutions where psychologists are trained, it is advisable to introduce a special course “Formation of the image of a psychologist.” This will allow graduates to more successfully prepare for future work, look more attractive in the eyes of clients and establish the necessary contacts.

The concept of “attraction” is closely related to interpersonal attractiveness. Some researchers consider attraction as a process and at the same time a result of the attractiveness of one person to another; distinguish levels in it (sympathy, friendship, love) and connect it with the perceptual side of communication (Andreeva, 1999). Others believe that attraction is a kind of social attitude, in which the positive emotional component predominates (Gozman, 1987). V. N. Kunitsyna understands attraction as the process of preference of some people over others, mutual attraction between people, mutual sympathy. In her opinion, attraction is determined by external factors (the degree of expression of a person’s need for affiliation, the emotional state of communication partners, the spatial proximity of the place of residence or work of those communicating) and internal, actually interpersonal determinants (physical attractiveness, demonstrated style of behavior, the factor of similarity between partners, expression of personal attitude towards a partner in the process of communication) (Kunitsyna, Kazarinova, Pogolsha, 2001). As can be seen from the above, the polysemy of the concept of “attraction” and its overlap with other phenomena complicates the use of this term and explains the lack of research in domestic psychology. This concept is borrowed from Anglo-American psychology and is covered by the domestic term “interpersonal attractiveness.” In this regard, it seems appropriate to use these terms as equivalent.

Under the concept "attraction" the need of one person to be together with another who has certain characteristics that receive a positive assessment from the perceiver is understood. It denotes experienced sympathy for another person. Attraction can be one- or two-directional (Obozov. 1979). Opposite concept "repulsion" (negation) is associated with the psychological characteristics of the communication partner, which are perceived and assessed negatively; therefore, the partner causes negative emotions.

Personality characteristics influencing the formation of interpersonal relationships. A favorable prerequisite for the successful formation of interpersonal relationships is the mutual awareness of partners about each other, formed on the basis of interpersonal knowledge. The development of interpersonal relationships is largely determined by the characteristics of those communicating. These include gender, age, nationality, temperament, health, profession, experience in communicating with people and some personal characteristics.

Floor. The uniqueness of interpersonal relationships between the sexes manifests itself already in childhood. Boys, compared to girls, even in childhood are more active in making contacts, participating in group games, and interacting with peers. This picture is also observed in adult men. Girls tend to communicate in a narrower circle. They establish relationships with those they like. The content of joint activities is not very important for them (for boys it’s the opposite). Women have a much smaller social circle than men. In interpersonal communication, they experience a much greater need for self-disclosure, transferring personal information about themselves to others. More often they complain of loneliness (Kohn, 1987).

For women, characteristics manifested in interpersonal relationships are more significant, and for men - business qualities,

In interpersonal relationships, female steel is aimed at reducing social distance and establishing psychological closeness with people. In friendships, women emphasize trust, emotional support and intimacy. “Women’s friendships are less stable. The intimacy inherent in female friendship on a very wide range of issues, the discussion of the nuances of one’s own relationships complicates them” (Kohn, 1987, p. 267). Discrepancies, misunderstandings and emotionality undermine women's interpersonal relationships.

In men, interpersonal relationships are characterized by greater emotional restraint and objectivity. They open up more easily to strangers. Their style of interpersonal relationships is aimed at maintaining their image in the eyes of their communication partner, showing their achievements and aspirations. In friendships, men detect a sense of camaraderie and mutual support.

Age. The need for emotional warmth appears in infancy and with age gradually turns into varying degrees of awareness of the psychological attachment of children to people who create psychological comfort for them (Kon, 1987, 1989). With age, people gradually lose the openness characteristic of youth in interpersonal relationships. Their behavior is influenced by numerous sociocultural norms (especially professional and ethnic ones). The circle of contacts especially narrows after young people get married and have children in the family. Numerous interpersonal relationships are reduced and manifested in production and related areas. In middle age, as children grow older, interpersonal relationships expand again. In older and older age, interpersonal relationships acquire weight. The ego is explained by the fact that children have grown up and have their own attachments, active work ends, and the circle of friends sharply narrows. In old age, old friendships play a special role.

Nationality. Ethnic norms determine sociability, boundaries of behavior, and rules for the formation of interpersonal relationships. In different ethnic communities, interpersonal connections are built taking into account a person’s position in society, gender and age status, membership in social strata and religious groups, etc.

Some properties temperament influence the formation of interpersonal relationships. It has been experimentally established that choleric and sanguine people easily establish contacts, while phlegmatic and melancholic people have difficulty. Consolidating interpersonal relationships in pairs of “choleric with choleric”, “sanguine with sanguine” and “choleric with sanguine” is difficult. Stable interpersonal connections are formed in pairs of “melancholic with phlegmatic”, “melancholic with sanguine” and “phlegmatic with sanguine” (Obozov, 1979).

Health status. External physical disabilities, as a rule, have a negative impact on the “self-concept” and ultimately make it difficult to form interpersonal relationships.

Temporary illnesses affect sociability and the stability of interpersonal contacts. Diseases of the thyroid gland, various neuroses, etc., associated with increased excitability, irritability, anxiety, mental instability, etc. - all this seems to “rock” interpersonal relationships and negatively affects them.

Profession. Interpersonal relationships are formed in all spheres of human life, but those are the most stable. which appear as a result of joint labor activity. In the course of performing functional duties, not only business contacts are consolidated, but also interpersonal relationships emerge and develop, which later acquire a multifaceted and deep character. If, due to the nature of his professional activity, a person has to constantly communicate with people, then he develops the skills and abilities to establish interpersonal contacts (for example, lawyers, journalists, etc.).

Experience communicating with people promotes the acquisition of stable skills in interpersonal relationships, based on social norms of regulation, with representatives of different groups in society (Bobneva, 1978). Communication experience allows you to practically master and apply various norms of communication with by different people and form social control over the manifestation of their emotions.

Self-esteem. Adequate self-esteem allows an individual to objectively assess their characteristics and correlate them with the individual psychological qualities of a communication partner, with the situation, choose the appropriate style of interpersonal relationships and adjust it if necessary.

Inflated self-esteem introduces elements of arrogance and condescension into interpersonal relationships. If the communication partner is satisfied with this style of interpersonal relationships, they will be quite stable, otherwise they will become tense.

Low self-esteem of an individual forces her to adapt to the style of interpersonal relationships offered by her communication partner. At the same time, this can introduce a certain mental tension into interpersonal relationships due to the internal discomfort of the individual.

The need for communication and establishing interpersonal contacts with people is a fundamental characteristic of a person. At the same time, among people there are people whose need for confidential communication (affiliation) and mercy (altruism) is somewhat overestimated. Friendly interpersonal relationships are most often formed with one person or several individuals, while affiliation and altruism tend to be expressed among many people. Research results indicate that helping behavior has been identified in people who have empathy, a high level of self-control and are inclined to make independent decisions. Indicators of affiliative behavior are positive verbal statements, prolonged eye contact, a friendly facial expression, increased manifestation of verbal and non-verbal signs of agreement, confidential telephone calls, etc. The described characteristics of affiliative behavior in form resemble the stage of friendly relations, and its indicators are criteria for the development of positive interpersonal relationships. During the research, we identified personal qualities that make it difficult development of interpersonal relationships. The first group included narcissism, arrogance, arrogance, complacency and vanity. The second group includes dogmatism, a constant tendency to disagree with a partner. The third group included duplicity and insincerity (Kunitsyna, Kazarinova, Pogolsha, 2001)

The process of forming interpersonal relationships. It includes the dynamics, the regulatory mechanism (empathy) and the conditions for their development.

Dynamics of interpersonal relationships. Interpersonal relationships are born, strengthened, reach a certain maturity, after which they can weaken and then cease. They develop in a continuum and have a certain dynamics.

In his works, N. N. Obozov explores the main types of interpersonal relationships, but does not consider their dynamics. American researchers also identify several categories of groups, the basis of which is the closeness of interpersonal relationships (acquaintances, good friends, close friends and best friends), but analyze them somewhat in isolation, without revealing the course of their development (Huston, Levinger, 1978).

The dynamics of the development of interpersonal relationships in the time continuum goes through several stages (stages): acquaintance, friendship, companionship and friendly relations. The process of weakening interpersonal relationships in the “reverse” direction has the same dynamics (the transition from friendly to comradely, friendly, and then the termination of the relationship). The duration of each stage depends on many components of interpersonal relationships.

Dating process carried out depending on the sociocultural and professional norms of the society to which future communication partners belong.

Friendship form readiness - unpreparedness for further development interpersonal relationships. If the partners have a positive attitude, then this is a favorable prerequisite for further communication.

Partnership allow you to strengthen interpersonal contact. Here there is a convergence of views and support for each other (at this stage such concepts as “act in a comradely manner”, “comrade in arms”, etc.) are used. Interpersonal relationships at this stage are characterized by stability and a certain mutual trust. Numerous popular publications on optimizing interpersonal relationships give recommendations on the use of various techniques to induce goodwill and sympathy among communication partners (Snell, 1990; Deryabo, Yasvin, 1996; Kuzin, 1996),

When researching friendly (trusting) relationships the most interesting and profound results were obtained by I. S. Kon, N. N. Obozov, T. P. Skripkina (Obozov, 1979; Kon, 1987, 1989; Skripkina, 1997). According to I. S. Kon, friendly relations always have a common substantive content - a community of interests, goals of activity, in the name of which friends unite (unite), and at the same time presuppose mutual affection (Kon, 1987).

Despite the similarity of views and the provision of emotional and activity support to each other, certain disagreements may exist between friends. We can distinguish utilitarian (instrumental-business, practically effective) and emotional-expressive (emotional-confessional) friendship. Friendly relationships manifest themselves in various forms: from interpersonal sympathy to a mutual need for communication. Such relationships can develop both in a formal and informal setting. Friendly relationships, compared to companionship, are characterized by greater depth and trust (Kohn, 1987). Friends openly discuss with each other many aspects of their lives, including the personal characteristics of those communicating and mutual acquaintances.

An important characteristic of friendships is trust. T. P. Skripkina in her research reveals the empirical correlates of people’s trust in other people and in themselves (Skripkina, 1997).

Interesting results on the problem of trusting relationships were obtained in a study conducted under the leadership of V.N. Kunitsyna on a student sample. “Trusting relationships in the surveyed group prevail over dependency relationships. A third of respondents define their relationship with their mother as a trusting, partnership; More than half of them believe that, despite all this, dependent relationships often arise with their mother, while relationships with a friend are assessed only as trusting and partnership. It turned out that the dependency relationship with one significant person often compensated through building a partnership with a significant other. If, during the accumulation of experience, a person has formed insufficient hope for establishing close relationships with people, then relationships of trust and support more often arise with a friend than with a mother” (Kunitsyna. Kazarinova, Pogolsha, 2001). Friendships can weaken and end if one of the friends fails to keep secrets entrusted to him, does not protect the friend in his absence, and is also jealous of his other relationships (Argyle, 1990).

Friendships in young years are accompanied by intense contacts, psychological richness and greater significance. At the same time, a sense of humor and sociability are highly valued.

Adults value responsiveness, honesty, and social availability more in friendships. Friendships at this age are more stable. “In active middle age, the emphasis on psychological intimacy as the most important sign of friendship weakens somewhat and friendly relations lose their aura of totality” (Kohn, 1987, p. 251),

Friendships among the older generation for the most part connected to family ties and people who share the same life experiences and values.

The problem of criteria for friendly relations has not been sufficiently studied. Some researchers include mutual assistance, fidelity and psychological intimacy among them, others point to competence in communicating with partners, caring for them, actions and predictability of behavior.

Empathy as a mechanism for the development of interpersonal relationships. Empathy is the response of one person to the experiences of another. Some researchers believe that it is an emotional process, others - an emotional and cognitive process. There are conflicting opinions about whether a given phenomenon is a process or a property.

N. N. Obozov considers empathy as a process (mechanism) and includes cognitive, emotional and effective components. According to him, empathy has three levels.

The hierarchical structural-dynamic model is based on cognitive empathy (first level), manifested in the form of understanding mental state another person without changing his condition.

Second level of empathy implies emotional empathy, not only in the form of understanding the state of another person, but also empathy and sympathy for him, an empathic response. This form of empathy includes two options. The first is associated with the simplest empathy, which is based on the need for one’s own well-being. Another, transitional form from emotional to effective empathy, is expressed in the form of sympathy, which is based on the need for the well-being of another person.

Third level of empathy - highest form, including cognitive, emotional and behavioral components. It fully expresses interpersonal identification, which is not only mental (perceived and understood) and sensory (empathetic), but also effective. At this level of empathy, real actions and behavioral acts are manifested to provide assistance and support to a communication partner (sometimes such the style of behavior is called helping). There are complex interdependencies between the three forms of empathy (Obozov, 1979). In the presented approach, the second and third levels of empathy (emotional and effective) are quite convincingly and logically substantiated. At the same time, its first level (cognitive empathy), associated with understanding the state of other people without changing one’s state), is, in our opinion, a purely cognitive process.

As evidenced by the results of experimental studies in Russia and abroad, sympathy is one of the main forms of manifestation of empathy. It is determined by the principle of similarity of certain biosocial characteristics of communicating people. The principle of similarity is presented in numerous works by I. S. Kon and N. N. Obozov. T, P. Gavrilova, F, Heider, T. Newcomb, L. Festinger, C. Osgood, and P. Tannenbaum.

If the principle of similarity is not manifested in the communicating people, then this indicates indifference of feelings. When they exhibit inconsistency and especially contradiction, this entails disharmony (imbalance) in cognitive structures and leads to the emergence of antipathy.

As research results show, most often interpersonal relationships are based on the principle of similarity (resemblance), and sometimes on the principle of complementarity. The latter is expressed in the fact that, for example, when choosing comrades, friends, future spouses, etc., people unconsciously, and sometimes consciously, choose persons who can satisfy mutual needs. Based on this, positive interpersonal relationships can develop.

Showing sympathy can intensify the transition from one stage of interpersonal relationships to another, as well as expand and deepen interpersonal relationships. Sympathy, like antipathy, can be unidirectional (without reciprocity) or multidirectional (with reciprocity).

The concept is very close to the concept of “empathy”. "sintotost", which is understood as the ability to join the emotional life of another person, due to the need for emotional contact. In Russian literature, this concept is found quite rarely.

Various forms of empathy are based on a person’s sensitivity to his own and others’ world. During the development of empathy as a personality trait, emotional responsiveness and the ability to predict the emotional state of people are formed. Empathy can be conscious to varying degrees. It can be possessed by one or both communication partners. The level of empathy was experimentally determined in studies by T. P. Gavrilova and N. N. Obozov. Individuals with high levels of empathy show interest in other people, are flexible, emotional and optimistic. Individuals with a low level of empathy are characterized by difficulties in establishing contacts, introversion, rigidity and self-centeredness.

Empathy can manifest itself not only in real communication between people, but also in the perception of works of fine art, in the theater, etc.

Empathy as a mechanism for the formation of interpersonal relationships contributes to their development and stabilization, allows you to provide support to your partner not only in ordinary, but also in difficult, extreme conditions, when he especially needs it. Based on the mechanism of empathy, emotional and business impact becomes possible.

Conditions for the development of interpersonal relationships. Interpersonal relationships are formed under certain conditions that influence their dynamics, breadth and depth (Ross and Nisbett, 1999).

In urban conditions, compared to rural areas, there is a fairly high pace of life, frequent changes of places of work and residence, and a high level of public control. The result is a large number of interpersonal contacts, their short duration and the manifestation of functional-role communication. This leads to the fact that interpersonal relationships in the city place higher psychological demands on the partner. In order to maintain close ties, those communicating often have to pay with the loss of personal time, mental overload, material resources, etc.

Studies abroad show that the more often people meet, the more attractive they seem to each other. Apparently, and vice versa, the less often acquaintances meet, the faster interpersonal relationships between them weaken and cease. Spatial proximity particularly affects interpersonal relationships in children. If parents move or children move from one school to another, their contacts usually cease.

The specific conditions in which people communicate are important in the formation of interpersonal relationships. First of all, this is due to the types of joint activities during which interpersonal contacts are established (study, work, leisure), with the situation (usual or extreme), the ethnic environment (mono- or polyethnic), material resources, etc.

It is well known that interpersonal relationships develop quickly (go through all stages up to the level of trust) in certain places (for example, in a hospital, on a train, etc.). This phenomenon is apparently due to strong dependence on external factors, short-term joint life activities and spatial proximity. Unfortunately, we do not carry out very many comparative studies on interpersonal relationships in these conditions.

The importance of the time factor in interpersonal relationships depends on the specific sociocultural environment in which they develop (Ross and Nisbett, 1999).

The time factor influences the ethnic environment differently. In Eastern cultures, the development of interpersonal relationships is, as it were, extended over time, while in Western cultures it is “compressed”, dynamic. There are almost no works presenting studies of the influence of the time factor on interpersonal relationships in our literature.

Numerous techniques and tests are available to measure various aspects of interpersonal relationships. Among them are the diagnosis of interpersonal relationships by T. Leary (dominance-submission, friendliness-aggression), the “Q-sorting” technique (dependence-independence, sociability-unsociability, acceptance of struggle-avoidance of struggle), K. Thomas’ behavior description test (competition, cooperation , compromise, avoidance, adaptation), J. Moreno’s method of interpersonal preferences for measuring sociometric status in a group (preference-rejection), A. Mehrabyan and N. Epstein’s questionnaire of empathic tendencies. method of the level of empathic abilities of V. V. Boyko, method of I. M. Yusupov for measuring the level of empathic tendencies, author’s methods of V. N. Kunitsyna, questionnaire method of V. Azarov for studying impulsivity and volitional regulation in communication, method of assessing the level of sociability of V. F. Ryakhovsky and others.

The problem of interpersonal relationships in domestic and foreign psychological science has been studied to a certain extent. There is currently very little scientific research on interpersonal relationships. Prospective problems are: compatibility in business and interpersonal relationships, social distance in them, trust in different types of interpersonal relationships and its criteria, as well as the peculiarities of interpersonal connections in various types of professional activities in a market economy.

3.7. Psychology of Interpersonal Impact

Rice. 5. A systems approach to interpersonal influence

Subject of psychological influence(Fig. 5, subject) can act as an organizer, performer (communicator) and researcher of his influence process. The subject can be one person or a group.

The effectiveness of influence depends on gender, age, social status, material and information resources and many other components of the subject, and most importantly, on his professional and psychological preparedness to influence his communication partner.

At St. Petersburg University, V. M. Pogolsha conducted a study to identify the psychological properties of a person that allow her to successfully exert influence. The basis for identifying personality types (based on the ability to exert personal influence) were the following properties: aggressiveness-friendliness, emotional instability-self-regulation, sociability-isolation, risk motive-motive to avoid failure, authoritarianism-partnership, frustration, conflict, impulsiveness, adaptability, empathy, exhaustion, activity and self-awareness factors such as self-esteem and self-control. After processing the results, a complex of communicative and personal properties was established, including ease of communication, communication skills, adaptability, confidence, active position in interaction, motive for achievement, affiliation, understanding of the interlocutor and social intelligence. According to V. M. Pogolsha, the above-mentioned properties constitute, to a certain extent, the “charisma” of a person, which allows her to successfully exert influence. Based on the identified criteria, she established four main and three compensatory types, the representatives of which have a personal influence on people in different ways. An interesting conclusion is made by V. M. Pogolsha about the coincidence of the personal properties of a leader and a complex of socio-psychological characteristics, which are the potential of a subject who successfully exerts personal influence (Kunitsyna, Kazarinova, Pogolsha, 2001).

The subject of interpersonal influence studies the object and the situation in which the influence is carried out; chooses strategy, tactics and means of influence; takes into account signals received from the object about the success or failure of the influence (feedback); organizes opposition to the object (if there is a possible counter-influence), etc. If the recipient (object of influence) does not agree with the information offered to him and seeks to reduce the effect of the influence exerted on him, the communicator has the opportunity to use the patterns of reflexive control or manipulative influence.

Object of psychological influence(Fig. 5, object). In the object, the subject of influence is often isolated, that is, those phenomena to which psychological influence is directed. These include beliefs, motives, value orientations, etc., and in a group of people - the psychological climate, intergroup tension, etc. The object, being an active element of the system of influence, processes the information offered to it and may not agree with the subject, and in some cases cases and carry out counter-influence on the communicator, i.e. himself to act as a subject. The object correlates the information offered to it by the communicator with its existing value orientations and its life experience, after which it makes a decision. The characteristics of the object that influence the effectiveness of the influence on it include its gender, age, nationality, profession, education, experience of participation and communication exchange of information. and other features. Sometimes the role of an object can be not only one person, but also a group. In the latter case, the process of exerting influence becomes more complex.

Interpersonal influence process(Figure 5, process). The process of psychological influence (influence), in turn, will be a multidimensional system that includes strategy, tactics, dynamics, means, methods, forms, argumentation and criteria for the effectiveness of influence.

Strategy- these are the methods of action of the subject to achieve main goal psychological impact on the recipient. Two main types of psychological influence strategies can be designated as monological and dialogical (Ball, Burgin, 1994). The subject of influence, guided by a monologue strategy, behaves in such a way as if only he were a full-fledged subject and bearer of truth, and the recipient was only an object of influence. He himself, as a rule, regardless of the preferences of the recipient, sets the goal of the influence. As for the process of influence, the subject is often forced to take into account the characteristics of the recipient to ensure its effectiveness. Within the framework of the monologue type of strategy, two subtypes are distinguished: imperative and manipulative. At imperative strategy the desired result of the impact is directly indicated by the subject, the recipient’s activity should be directed towards understanding and fulfilling the instructions. At manipulative strategy the goal of the influence is not directly proclaimed, but is achieved through the formation by the subject of the influence of the recipient’s activity in such a way that it unfolds in the direction desired by him (Dotsenko, 1997).

V.M. Pogolsha defines manipulation as a type of psychological influence used to achieve a one-sided gain. Signs of manipulative influence include the desire to place a communication partner in a certain dependence, easy or difficult to detect deception and hypocrisy (obsessiveness, desire to please, a feeling of reticence, etc.) and a call to unite against someone (Be friends against someone!). For these purposes, intrigue and the desire to quarrel between a partner and a third party are used. When communicating with a manipulator, it is recommended to adhere to a logical wait-and-see position (to gain time, identify a manipulative strategy and find an adequate solution), maintain composure and tact, perform non-stereotypical actions that do not meet the expectations of the opponent, offer the manipulator a joint solution to the problem, etc. In general, the main the factor of resistance to external pressure and manipulation is personal potency, which is resistance to external influence and at the same time the power of influence on people (Kunitsyna, Kazarinova, Pogolsha, 2001)

Unlike the manipulative strategy, dialogical (developmental) strategy comes from the recognition of the subjective usefulness and fundamental equality of interacting partners and therefore seeks to abstract from all possible differences between them.

Tactics- this is the solution of intermediate problems of psychological influence through the use of various psychological techniques. The tactics of influence are determined by its objectives. All tactics can be divided into two main groups of short-term and long-term effects.

With adequate intensity, the impact can more or less capture the consciousness of the recipient, affect his emotions and encourage him to adjust his behavior (Bodalev, 1996).

Means of influence can be verbal and non-verbal (paralinguistic and extralinguistic). Compared to other elements of the process, the means of influence are the most variable. When adequately selected, they can ensure effective impact. The key to success is choice argumentation systems, convincing for the recipient, based on real life conditions and taking into account the psychological characteristics of the object (Mitsich, 1987). The argumentation system may include ideological evidence, information characterizing the way of life, etc. As for the use non-verbal means of influence, then, in general, they must be adequate to the object, subject and conditions of influence.

TO methods of influence include persuasion and coercion (at the level of consciousness), suggestion, infection and imitation (at the unconscious level of the psyche). The last three methods are socio-psychological.

Belief[In psychological and pedagogical literature, the concept of “belief” is used in three ways: firstly, as knowledge that is part of the worldview; secondly, as the main method of psychological influence on personality consciousness, thirdly, as a process of influence] in relation to psychological influence can perform several functions: informational, critical and constructive. Depending on the personality of the object, their significance is different. The information function depends on the degree of awareness of the recipient on the subject (problem, issue) of the impact. The critical function is to evaluate the views, opinions, stereotypes and value orientations of the object. The role of this function is especially important in disputes, discussions, etc., that is, in the process of persuading the recipient. The constructive function is manifested in the formation of new views, approaches and attitudes in the object. Persuasion, compared to persuasion, is a more complex, time-consuming and psychologically painful process for the recipient, since he experiences a breakdown of existing views and ideas, the destruction of old ones and the formation of new attitudes. In this regard, the communicator has to spend significantly more psychological and other resources on the process of influence. “In persuading people, great caution, tolerance, goodwill and tact are required, because it is quite difficult for a person to part with his convictions even when he has realized their inconsistency and fallacy” (Afonin, 1975, 43).

Compulsion As a method of influence, it has two modifications: physical and moral-psychological coercion. The first is related to the use of physical or military force and will not be considered by us. The second modification manifests itself, for example, in managerial or educational practice. The method of coercion, from a psychological point of view, essentially coincides with the method of persuasion. In both cases, the communicator's task is to ensure that the recipient accepts his proposal. In both persuasion and coercion, the subject justifies his point of view with the help of evidence. The main feature of the coercion method, compared to persuasion, is that the basic premises with which this thesis is substantiated potentially contain negative sanctions for the object. The latter correlates possible negative consequences with his system of value orientations. In practice, this is interpreted by the object as a determination of the subjective meaning of values ​​(Leontyev, 1985). And only in the case when the grounds with the help of which the recipient is proven to accept the proposals are subjectively presented to him as having the opportunity to destroy his existing hierarchy of values, the object accepts the decision that is offered to him,

Recently, using the coercive method, training with negative reinforcement or punishment has become widespread, which is based on various warnings, reprimands and fines for unwanted behavior (for example, in order to deter involuntary behavioral acts, punishments with emetic drugs and even weak electric shocks are used). Such aversion procedures and techniques are quite controversial: they have both supporters and opponents.

Under suggestion refers to purposeful, unreasoned influence based on uncritical perception of information. This method has long attracted the attention of scientists, and therefore a large number of studies have been carried out on it. Suggestion is actively used in pedagogical and medical practice, in military affairs, in means mass media etc. The effectiveness of suggestion depends on the characteristics of the subject and object and especially on the relationships that develop between them. The presence of a positive attitude in the object towards the subject helps to optimize the impact. The effectiveness of the suggestive influence can be achieved by increasing the prestige of the subject (for example, it is not the representative of the party who speaks, but its leader), repeating the influence in various modifications and reinforcing the content with logically thought-out and convincing (from the recipient’s point of view) evidence. This is explained by the fact that the target’s existing wariness towards suggested information will be destroyed by compelling arguments. If the recipient's resistance is high, then the evidence should be more convincing and affect his feelings.

Infection consists in the unconscious and involuntary susceptibility of people to certain mental states. Contagion has integrative and expressive functions. The first is used to enhance the monolithic nature of the group (for example, in fascist Germany members of the Hitler Youth were forced to collectively listen to recordings of the Fuhrer’s speeches and sing Nazi songs), the second is associated with the release of mental tension. The expressive function of infection is clearly manifested at entertainment events. The influence of the infection method can also be observed in the case of a successful joke by the speaker. In this case, smiles, laughter, and a cheerful mood are vividly transmitted among the people present, creating a positive mood in them. Infection has different effectiveness depending on the excellent and business qualities of the object (such as restraint, a high level of self-control, etc.). Infection has always been successfully used by leaders of various religious movements and denominations. A certain kind of emotional state easily spreads among the masses of people who come to a religious meeting. This makes them more suggestible and controllable.

Imitation consists of the object’s conscious or unconscious following of the behavior or example of the subject of influence. Imitation is actively used, for example, in pedagogical and managerial activities. Following the models of decent behavior of teachers and managers allows us to develop high personal and business qualities in students or subordinates. The effectiveness of imitation depends on age, gender, personal and business qualities of the subject and object, the relationship between them and many other characteristics.

Based on the methods of imitation, infection and suggestion in neurolinguistic programming, the techniques of “mirroring” and “synchrony” have been developed. The “mirroring” procedure consists of borrowing and copying (in the process of training exercises) from a communication partner (or from a leading trainer) body movements, postures, gestures, facial expressions, tone of voice, pronunciation of words and sentences (this exercise is actively used in many training programs). The “synchrony” effect manifests itself in a difficult-to-observe connection between the bodily rhythms of the listener and the speaker. In interpersonal interaction, the speaker seems to “dance” with his body to the beat of his speech, and the listener moves to the beat of the speaker, thereby providing a reverse invisible but felt emotional relationship. “Synchrony is maximum when those communicating are in a state of agreement or dialogue with each other. It is minimal in case of dispute and conflict between them” (Kovalev, 1995). The use of the above gaming and other techniques contributes to the development of the individual’s ability to influence and establish relationships with other people (Marasanov, 1995).

Forms of interpersonal influence can be verbal (written and oral), visual and demonstration. Identification of these forms is necessary for scientific analysis and development of specific recommendations for optimizing the psychological impact in practical work. The easiest to perceive are oral (speech), visual, and especially demonstration forms. The choice of forms is determined by many factors: objectives of influence, personal and business qualities of the object and subject, material and financial resources of the subject, etc.

Argument system involves abstract evidence and information of a concrete nature. Research shows that the most effective information is factual and numerical information that is easier to remember and compare. A criterion for the effectiveness of an argument (the magnitude of its contribution to the final product of interaction) can be a measure of the convergence of the positions of the participants in the conversation. Indirect evidence of the effectiveness of the argument is considered to be an improvement in relations between interlocutors, an increase in their trust in each other (Gaida, 1987; Shibutani, 1998; Andreeva, Bogomolova, Petrovskaya, 2001). It is advisable to take into account the principles of selection and presentation of information (evidence and satisfaction of the information needs of a particular object), as well as communication barriers (cognitive, socio-psychological, etc.).

Effectiveness criteria can be strategic (delayed in the future, for example, ideological) and tactical (intermediate), which guide the subject in the process of influencing a partner (for example, speech statements, facial expressions, etc.). As intermediate criteria for the effectiveness of interpersonal influence, the subject can use changes in the psychophysiological, functional, paralinguistic, verbal, proxemic and behavioral characteristics of the object. It is advisable to use the criteria in the system, comparing their intensity and frequency of manifestation.

Conditions impacts include the place and time of communication, the number of participants in communication who are affected (Ross and Nisbett, 1999).

Test questions and assignments:

1. What is it? systems approach to interpersonal perception?

2. What features of the subject influence his perception of people?

3. What components are included in the physical and social appearance of the perceived person?

4. By what signs can you determine that a new acquaintance is behaving sincerely or, conversely, insincerely (for example, engaging in self-presentation)?

5. What mechanisms of interpersonal cognition distort the image of a perceived person?

6. What differences exist between the mechanisms of interpersonal cognition?

8. Analyze what mechanisms inherent in you may distort interpersonal cognition.

9. List the main classification schemes of communication functions and reveal their content.

10. Highlight the mechanisms of cognition of people that most often manifest themselves to you.

11. After watching a video or film, describe 1-2 actors, using a systematic approach to the perception of a person’s physical and social appearance.

12. What are interpersonal relationships?

13. What is the relationship between the concepts of “social distance” and “psychological distance”?

14. Please describe how various personality traits influence the development of interpersonal relationships.

15. What are the differences between the concepts of “interpersonal and emotional”

attractiveness", "attraction" and "attraction"?

16. Describe the dynamics of interpersonal relationships and its manifestation in theory and life.

17. What is the essence of empathy and how does it manifest itself?

18. Describe the role of various conditions on the development of interpersonal relationships.

19. Analyze what characteristics of you influence the formation of interpersonal relationships.

20. Analyze what your level of empathy is (preferably using one of the techniques).

21. Correlate the theoretical knowledge presented in the paragraph with your experience in the formation of interpersonal relationships.

22. Describe what constitutes a psychological impact.

23. What characteristics of the subject of psychological influence influence the effectiveness of interpersonal influence?

24. What features of an object must be taken into account when exerting a psychological influence on it?

25. Describe the structural elements of the process of psychological influence.

26. Describe the methods of psychological influence.

27. Using theoretical concepts, analyze how you exert a psychological influence on your environment.

28. Think and highlight your potential, which can be used to increase the effectiveness of psychological influence on your partners.

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Interpersonal interaction- this is the process of direct or indirect influence of objects (subjects) on each other, giving rise to their mutual conditionality and connection.

In interpersonal interaction, a person’s attitude towards another person is realized as a subject who has his own world. These relationships are built on the basis of communication between people and in the process of joint activities: interpersonal relationships- This is an internal, hidden process of relationships between people.

1. Relations of production– develop between employees of organizations when solving production, educational, economic, everyday and other problems and imply fixed rules of behavior of employees in relation to each other.
2. Household relations– develop outside of work, on vacation and at home; 3. Economic relations – are implemented in the sphere of production, ownership and consumption, which is a market for material and spiritual products. Here a person plays two interrelated roles - seller and buyer.

4. Legal relations- are fixed by law. They establish the measure of individual freedom as a subject of production, economic, political and other social relations. These relationships, based on legislative rules, carry a great moral burden.

5. Moral relations– are enshrined in relevant rituals, traditions, customs and other forms of organizing people’s lives. These forms contain the moral norm of behavior at the level 6. Religious relations reflect the interaction of people that are formed under the influence of the faith and religion that is characteristic of a given society or social group.
7. Political relations center around the problem of power. The latter automatically leads to the dominance of those who possess it and the subordination of those who lack it. Power intended to organize social relations is realized in the form of leadership functions in communities of people 8. Aesthetic relations arise on the basis of the emotional and psychological attractiveness of people to each other and the aesthetic reflection of material objects outside world. These relationships are characterized by great subjective variability.
Social and psychological climate of the group – This is the prevailing and relatively stable spiritual atmosphere, or mental attitude, manifested both in the relations of people to each other and in relations to a common cause.

Definition and structure of communication

Modern psychological and pedagogical science uses various definitions of the concept of “communication”. Here are just a few of them:

1. Communication– the process of establishing and developing contacts between people, which is based on the motivation of the participants, aimed at changing the behavior and personal and semantic formations of the partner.

2. Communication– interaction between two or more people, consisting in the exchange of information between them of a cognitive or affective-evaluative nature.
Purpose of communication– answers the question “Why does a creature enter into an act of communication?” In animals, the goals of communication usually do not go beyond the biological needs that are relevant to them (warning of danger). Communication structure. three interconnected sides of communication - the communicative side of communication (exchange of information between subjects), the interactive side of communication (influencing the behavior, attitudes, opinions of interlocutors during communication, building a general interaction strategy), the perceptual side of communication (perception, study, establishing mutual understanding, evaluation communication partners with each other) (G. M. Andreeva).

B. D. Parygin offers a more detailed structure of communication: subjects of communication; means of communication; needs, motivation and goals of communication; methods of interaction, mutual influence and reflection of influences in the communication process; results of communication.

Communication functions. According to the ideas of B.F. Lomov, the following three functions are distinguished in communication: information-communicative (covering the processes of receiving and transmitting information), regulatory-communicative (associated with mutual adjustment of actions when carrying out joint activities), affective-communicative (relating to the emotional sphere of a person and meeting the need to change one’s emotional state).

Classification of types of communication.

Communication can be viewed from various grounds and, accordingly, we should talk about the existence of many types of communication.

Thus, N. I. Shevandrin identifies the following forms and types of communication:

1. Direct and indirect communication. carried out with the help of natural organs given to a living being by nature: hands, head, torso, voice. Indirect communication is communication using written or technical devices. 2. Interpersonal and mass communication. Interpersonal communication is associated with direct contacts of people in groups or pairs with a constant composition of participants. Mass communication is a lot of contacts between strangers, as well as communication mediated by various types of media. 3.Interpersonal and role communication. In the first case, the participants in communication are specific individuals. In the case of role communication, its participants act as role bearers (teacher-student, superior-subordinate).

Psychologist L. D. Stolyarenko distinguishes types of communication according to the nature of the course: * “contact of masks” (formal communication when familiar masks are used (politeness, severity, indifference));

*primitive communication (when they evaluate another person as a necessary or interfering object (if necessary, they come into contact, if it interferes, they push away)); *formal-role communication (when both the content and means of communication are regulated, and instead of knowing the personality of the interlocutor, they make do with knowledge of his social role); *business communication (when the personality characteristics of the interlocutor are taken into account, but the interests of the business are placed in the foreground), *spiritual-interpersonal communication (the type of communication that is observed in friendships);

*manipulative communication (communication aimed at obtaining benefits using various techniques (flattery, intimidation, deception)); *secular communication

Among the types of communication we can highlight nonverbal and verbal. Nonverbal communication does not involve the use of audible speech or natural language as means of communication. Nonverbal communication is communication through facial expressions, gestures and pantomimes, through direct sensory or bodily contact. These are tactile, visual, auditory, olfactory and other sensations and images received from another person. Verbal communication is inherent only to humans and, as a prerequisite, presupposes the acquisition of language. The development of verbal communication is based on non-verbal means of communication.

By studying an individual, we turn to his immediate environment, and through the prism of interpersonal relationships, his microsociety, we begin to better understand the problems of the individual and the roots of his personification.

If we talk about attitude, then we must keep in mind the subjective connection that is established by a person, an event and manifests itself in his emotional reactions and certain activities.

V.N. Myasishchev gave a classic definition of personality relationships: “Relationships are an integral system of individual, selective, conscious connections between a person and different sides objective reality, which includes three interrelated components: a person’s attitude to people, to himself, to objects of the external world."

The definition of “interpersonal” indicates not only that the object of the relationship is another person, but also the mutual direction of the relationship. Interpersonal relationships differ from such types as self-attitude, attitude towards objects, intergroup relations.

The concept of “interpersonal relationships” focuses on the emotional and sensory aspect of interaction between people and introduces the time factor and analysis of communication, since under the condition of interpersonal communication, through the continuous exchange of information, the dependence of the people who have come into contact on each other arises, and mutual responsibility for the existing relationship.

Human interaction with social system is carried out through a set of connections, thanks to which he becomes a person, a subject of activity and individuality. Relations that arise between people in the process of communication, joint practical and spiritual activities are defined as social relations. The reasons for such relationships can be industrial, political, legal, moral, religious, psychological and others.

Psychological relationships between people are usually divided into official and informal in accordance with the organization where they are formed. Official relationships are sanctioned, documented and controlled by society or individual representatives. Informal relationships may be recognized and even encouraged by formal organizations, but they are not documented.

Distinguish between business and personal or (interpersonal relationships). Business relationships are associated with educational or work joint activities and are determined by them. Personal relationships can be evaluative (admiration, popularity) and effective (related to interaction); they are determined not so much by objective conditions as by the subjective need for communication and the satisfaction of this need.

N.N. Obozov offers the following classification of interpersonal relationships: relationships of acquaintance, friendship, comradely, friendship, love, marital, family and destructive. This classification is based on several criteria: the depth of the relationship, selectivity and choice of partners, and the function of the relationship. The main criterion, in his opinion, is the extent and depth of a person’s involvement in a relationship, and additional criteria are the distance between partners, the duration and frequency of contacts, the participation of role clichés in acts of communication, norms of relationships, and requirements for the conditions of contact. According to N.N. Obozova, different types interpersonal relationships involve the inclusion in communication of certain levels of personality characteristics

Interpersonal relationships in a group can be considered statically, in the form in which they have formed at a given point in time, and dynamically, i.e. in the process of development. In the first case, the features of the existing system of relations are analyzed, in the second - the laws of their transformation and development. These two approaches often coexist with each other and complement each other.

Relationships in groups naturally change. At first, at the initial stage of group development, they are relatively indifferent (people who do not know or know each other poorly cannot definitely relate to each other), then they can become conflictual, and under favorable conditions turn into collectivist.

When analyzing the life and activities of an individual who enters into communication with other people, they most often abstract from the broad understanding of the category “relationship”, taking into account only its narrower meaning, in this case we are talking about interpersonal relationships.

Interpersonal relationships are a type of personal relationship that is revealed in relationships with other people. Interpersonal relationships are emotional in nature. They are accompanied by various experiences (likes and dislikes). The term “relationships” is used to denote interpersonal relationships in psychology.

The main criterion is depth - a measure of a person’s involvement in a relationship. In the structure of a personality, several levels of manifestation of its characteristics can be distinguished: general species, sociocultural, psychological, individual. Sociocultural characteristics include: nationality, profession, education, political and religious affiliation, social status.

Psychological characteristics include: intelligence, motivation, character, temperament, abilities.

To the individual - everything individually unique, determined by the characteristics of a person’s life.

Different types of interpersonal relationships involve the inclusion of different levels of personality in communication. The greatest inclusion of personality, down to individual characteristics, occurs in friendly relationships.

According to the second criterion, the greatest selectivity is characterized by friendship, marital, love relationship. The least selectivity is typical for acquaintance relationships.

The third criterion - the difference in the functions of relationships, means that the functions of relationships are manifested in the difference in their content, psychological meaning for partners.

Functions refer to tasks and issues that are resolved in interpersonal relationships.

In addition to the main ones, additional criteria are identified. These include: the distance between communication partners, the duration and frequency of contacts, the participation of role stereotypes in acts of communication, norms of relationships, requirements for the conditions of contact. The general pattern is as follows: the deeper the relationship, the shorter the distance; the more frequent the contacts, the fewer role clichés.

In friendships, one can distinguish instrumental relationships and emotional-confessional ones.

Emotionally confessional friendships are based on mutual sympathy, emotional attachment, and trust. This type of relationship is characterized by: decreased self-control and looseness in communication, removal of social masks of behavior - the opportunity to be oneself, the predominance of a positive evaluative attitude of partners.

The opposite of friendly relationships is hostile relationships. This type of relationship involves negative emotional attitudes towards the partner. hostile relationships manifest themselves in a lack of trust, violation of the partner’s plans, obstacles in activities, and deliberate lowering of the partner’s self-esteem.

Through interpersonal relationships, a person can indirectly become involved in the system of social relations. Initially, such inclusion occurs through a person’s immediate environment, but as they grow older, the boundaries expand. Informal, emotionally rich, personally significant interpersonal relationships create the basis for the formation of personality.

The focus is on M.I. Lisina and her employees were not only the external, behavioral picture of communication, but also the needs and motives of communication, which in essence are relationships. First of all, the concepts of “communication” and “relationship” should be correlated.

Communication was quite widely used in the context of the activity approach and was itself considered as a special type of activity. Interpersonal relationships were included in the problems of communication. At the same time, interpersonal relationships were intensively studied within the framework of relationship psychology, founded by A.L. Lazursky and V.N. Myasishchev.

At the center of this direction lies the idea of ​​personality, the core of which is an individually holistic system of subjective-evaluative relations to reality.

It is characteristic that the activity approach developed mainly within the framework of theoretical and experimental psychology, and the psychology of relationships developed mainly in the field of psychological practice.

In contrast to action, attitude:

1. Has no purpose and cannot be arbitrary

2. It is not a process and, therefore, does not have a spatio-temporal development; it is a state rather than a process;

3. Does not have culturally normalized external means of implementation and, therefore, cannot be presented and assimilated in a generalized form; it is always extremely individual and concrete.

At the same time, attitude is inextricably linked with action. It generates action, changes and transforms in action, and itself is formed and arises in action. Personal meaning is both a formative element of consciousness (which, as is known, precedes action) and the main characteristic of action, and its result. The resulting attitude may be both the source of the action and its product, but it may not be, since the attitude does not always express itself in external activity.

Let us consider the influence of various factors on the structure of formal and informal relations in study group, features of communication in the student team.

Interpersonal relationships arise and function within each type of social relationship, including during training at a medical college, and allow specific people to express themselves as individuals in acts of communication and interaction.

Communication is a prerequisite for the process of educating and training students. Its role and importance are determined by a number of factors.

Firstly, human life at any level involves the establishment of information connections and contacts, mutual understanding and interaction between people.

Secondly, no human communities, including student groups, can carry out full-fledged joint activities unless contact is established between people and mutual understanding is achieved among them.

Thirdly, the very psychological nature of a person causes him to need the support and help of other people, to study and use them life experience, in obtaining the necessary advice and information, which is especially important and necessary for first-year students.

Fourthly, the successful solution of educational tasks, activating students to complete them, making decisions, monitoring the execution of orders is carried out through communication.

In domestic social psychology, there are three different types of interpersonal communication in their orientation: imperative, manipulation and dialogue.

In the conditions of a medical college, the third type of communication is clearly manifested, i.e. dialogical communication. This is an equal subject-subjective interaction, which aims at mutual knowledge, self-knowledge of communication partners. Its effectiveness is largely determined by strict adherence to the rules: psychological attitude towards the state of the interlocutor; non-evaluative perception of the partner’s personality; perception of the partner as an equal, having own opinion. Naturally, this type of communication requires the teacher to have extensive experience in working with people, as well as certain personal qualities; restraint, respect for the interlocutor, patience, etc.

Imperative communication is an authoritarian, directive form of interaction with a communication partner. They resort to it in order to achieve control over the behavior and thoughts of a partner, forcing him to take certain actions. The peculiarity of imperative communication is that the partner is a passive party. At the same time, during communication, its ultimate goal, its coercive nature, is not hidden.

Manipulative communication is one of the forms of interpersonal communication in which influence on a partner to achieve one’s intentions is carried out covertly. With manipulative communication, the goal is also to achieve control over the behavior and thoughts of another person, but the partner in this case is not informed about the true goals of communication. They either hide or are replaced by others. Most often manipulations are used in business relations and in the field of propaganda. Manipulative communication is not acceptable in a medical college, as it may lead to mistrust on the part of students.

The effectiveness of communication depends on individual, personal and socio-psychological conditions and prerequisites. In psychology, these include: a clear understanding of the goals of communication; the presence of appropriate motives; mastery of means of communication; the communication skills and knowledge of the communicants are well formed.

The central component of the psychology of the student body, the core of the socio-psychological climate in it, is the relationship between students in two main forms.

When considering the dynamics of student relationships, it is necessary to take into account the features, specific manifestations and contradictions characteristic of adolescence at the stage of transition to maturity.

Self-esteem is an important regulator of human behavior; relationships with others, criticality and demands on oneself, and attitude towards one’s successes and failures depend on it. Self-esteem greatly influences our perception of others.R. Nemov writes that one of the facts that definitely influences the correctness of people’s perception of each other is the primacy effect.

Its essence is that the primary impression of a person, the first personal information received about him, can have a strong, lasting influence on the formation of the image. The primary impression of a person is influenced by such little things as gestures, facial expressions, appearance, speech, and therefore, with low self-esteem, it is difficult to actually make a good impression, since low self-esteem, in the first place, prevents a person from revealing himself as an individual and realizing his potential.

When communicating with a person with low self-esteem, he feels the person’s attitude toward himself on a subconscious level (subconsciously picking up facial expressions, gestures, intonations) and an elementary law comes into play: “Why would I make extra efforts and treat the person better than he expects?” People with low self-esteem generally do not strive for a leadership position in a team.

The most important feature of interpersonal relationships is that the emotional component plays a very significant role in information. This is not the case in other types of relations, such as industrial and political. The content and degree of expression of emotions and feelings that students can experience in relation to each other are extremely diverse: a deep sense of respect, indifference, hatred, willingness to sacrifice everything for a friend. All emotions and feelings associated with interpersonal relationships can be divided into two large groups - a group of positive and a group of negative feelings and emotions.

The first group includes bringing together and unifying feelings, in which the subjects of the relationship demonstrate readiness and desire for cooperation, joint actions (feelings of sympathy and respect for another, positive emotions, manifested as a result of a high assessment of his moral, business and other qualities).

The second group includes bringing together and unifying feelings, when there is no desire to cooperate, interaction becomes impossible, antipathy, contempt, and negative emotions arise.

Likes and dislikes, as an important psychological element of interpersonal relationships, affect the psychological climate of the group, and sometimes of the entire course, especially if likes or dislikes arise between the leaders of microgroups. No less significantly the nature of interpersonal relationships is influenced by the position of the individual in the system of group relations, which is characterized, first of all, by its status and roles performed.

Status is the position of a subject in interpersonal relationships. Status assigns a social function to a person by normatively endowing him with rights and responsibilities. Status is realized through a system of roles, that is various functions which a person performs in accordance with his position in the group. Role behavior is relatively flexible; it can change and improve depending on the situation and the dynamics of the individual. Therefore, the role can be considered a dynamic aspect of status.

The totality of subordinate positions of a group in the system of intragroup interpersonal preferences forms a sociometric structure small group. A system of emotional likes and dislikes between group members that determine the unofficial sociometric status of a group member.

The sociometric status of a group member is a fairly stable value. The value is not only preserved, but also “transfers” with the student to another group. The explanation for this is very simple. Status is a group category and does not exist outside the group; the student gets used to fulfilling the roles assigned to him by his permanent status position. Certain habitual forms of response to the words and actions of others are fixed in behavior. Facial expressions, postures and other non-verbal reactions are also “adjusted” to a certain role.

Some psychological and social factors influence the magnitude of a student’s sociometric status. Firstly, appearance - facial expression, clothing, hairstyle, physique; secondly, the nature of speech - what is said and how, the content and form of communication style; thirdly, behavior - the nature of actions, their motives, manner of behavior; fourthly, activity - what and how the student does, goals, motives and methods of activity, its quality. Each group has a system of its own valuable qualities for this community. High status is given to those who possess them in due measure.

A student's status often depends on his position in other groups and the success of his activities. A student who has distinguished himself in sports and amateur performances can improve his position in the group and on the course.

Each status includes a number of roles. For example, a student who has the status of a prefect behaves differently with other students. The set of roles corresponding to a given status is called a role set. There are formal roles, which are performed in accordance with the officially assigned status, and informal ones (“the soul of the group”, “the ringleader”). With long-term interactions, roles become stable. And in the future they greatly influence the behavior of the individual and his actions.

The relationship between status and role in formal and informal groups is different. In a formal group, statuses are normatively defined and delimited. A person first occupies a status (appointed or elected to a position), and then begins to perform a role. There may be cases of occupying a status without playing a role or with playing a role. In an informal group, a person performs a role while occupying a status.

From this it is obvious that the important point is the choice of the group's asset. This should be preceded by long and labor-intensive work by the class teacher to analyze the existing interpersonal relationships in the group. In the future, the psychological climate in the study group, as well as the effectiveness of solving problems of various kinds, will depend on this choice. The optimal option is when members of the active group are also leaders of microgroups.

The study of microgroups in a student group, the ability to distinguish between them is an integral part of the work of the class teacher, and he must understand that such groups exist within the framework of any small social community. Numerous subgroups are not very stable. Within the microgroup, their own norms and rules of group life are established, and it is the microgroup that most often initiates changes in these groups. Student entering new group, first of all, faces the choice of a microgroup that would accept him and approve of his behavior. The teacher in his work must act taking into account the reaction of the microgroup, especially those of them who occupy dominant positions.

A significant influence on the nature of interpersonal relationships is exerted by the structure of social power in a group, which, realized through the actual or potential right to influence on the part of certain group members, can be exercised in various forms, among them the phenomena of leadership and management are the most studied.

The problem of interpersonal relationships and communication in social psychology.

A) general characteristics interpersonal relationships as a socio-psychological phenomenon;

B) Communication in the system of interpersonal relationships and interaction of people;

C) Structure, content and form of communication;

D) Basic functions and aspects of the communication process: communicative, interactive, perceptual.

Communication as communication.

A) Specifics communication process between people;

B) Model of the communication process;

C) Verbal and non-verbal communication. Communicative means of communication and human expressive repertoire;

G) Psychological conditions effective communication.

Interpersonal perceptions and mutual understanding.

A) The role of interpersonal perception and mutual understanding in the communication process;

B) Structure and mechanisms of social perception: identification, causal attribution, reflection, attraction, stereotyping;

C) Social-perceptual style of personality: its formation and development.

Interpersonal interaction.

A) Interpersonal interaction in the structure of joint activities and communication. Functional-role differentiation;

B) Types and strategies of interaction;

C) Interaction in the group activity system;

D) Psychological mechanisms of influence on other people.

Interpersonal conflict and ways to resolve it.

A) The concept of interpersonal conflict;

B) The structure of interpersonal conflict;

C) Conflict situation and conflict behavior. Strategies and outcomes of conflict interaction;

D) Dynamics of conflict;

D) Functions of conflict.

Task 2

a) Actualization of a person’s need for communication, emotional empathy, desire for cooperation, communication, friendship with other people is called affiliation.

B) Communication style is an individual, stable form of a person’s communicative behavior, manifested in any conditions of his interaction with others;

C) In the most generalized classification, the following aspects of communication are distinguished: communicative, interactive and perceptual;

Task 3

Direction name

Understanding Communication

Interactionist approach

Communication is social interaction, communication through symbols, in which their individual and social significance, as well as social roles.

Neobehaviorism

Communication is a system of behavioral actions, exchange of reinforcements, dyadic interaction, implementation of aggressive motivation, factor of learning behavior patterns.

Neo-Freudianism

Communication is the process of realizing the unconscious basic motivation of an individual, for example, the need for power or love, regulated by the mechanisms of identification and psychological defense.

Transactional analysis

Communication is the process of exchange of transactions, that is, actions-stimuli and reactions, which in content correspond to the three-component structure of personality, including the positions of the emotional “Child”, the normative-stereotypical “Parent” and the reasonable-rational “Adult”.

Cognitivist approach

Communication is communication in which information exchange occurs, various cognitive processes, social reception (perception), as well as little-conscious attitudes are manifested.

Task 4

a) The determination of the social and psychological qualities of a person and his relationship to the world can be represented by the following diagram:

Society

b) The model of the communication process includes the following elements (according to G. Lassuel):

Communicator

Task 5

Positions

Typical sayings

Caring parent

“Don’t be afraid”, “We will all help you”

Critical parent

“You’re late for work again,” “Everyone must fulfill their duties and not give reasons,” “Get everything done by evening!”

Adult

“What time is it?”, “Who might have this letter?”, “We will solve this problem in a group”

Spontaneous child

“This stupid letter has been on my desk for the third time,” “You did it just wonderful. I couldn’t do that,” “Wow, what a beauty it turned out!”

Adapting Child

“I would love to, but we could get into trouble,” “What should I do now?”

Rebellious child

“I won’t do this”, “You can’t do this”

Task 6

a) A transaction is a unit of communication between two or more persons. Transactions show from which levels of personality (states) the interlocutor addresses another person.

D) The effect of projection lies in the ability of people to attribute their own merits to a pleasant interlocutor, and their own shortcomings to an unpleasant interlocutor, that is, to most clearly identify in others those traits that are clearly represented in themselves.

Task 7

A: You did it wrong again! We'll have to punish you! (in a harsh, authoritative voice)

B: I promise this is the last time. Don't punish me.

A: Petrov! When can you come to me to discuss the results of our work for the month?

B: I think that by 16 o’clock I will be free and will come to you.

A: Don't worry, everything will be fine. This doesn't happen in life.

B: I understand, but, unfortunately, I can’t help it.

A: Oh, if only someone would help me...

B: I'll help you.

Task 8

A) Communication - transaction

Speech - utterance

B) Verbal - non-verbal

Word – Gesture

B) Conjunctive - disjunctive

Love - hate

D) Optical-kinetic system - facial expressions