Rean general psychology. A. Rean. Psychology of the study of personality. Achievements and promotions

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Chapter 1
Personality in psychology

1.1. The concept of "personality"

Not only psychology, but also many other sciences, such as philosophy, pedagogy, sociology, criminology, etc., are studying issues related to the concept of "personality". or implicitly) "personal view" of the problem. It is clear that the processes of perception, memory, thinking, speech, etc., do not exist by themselves. And perceives, and remembers, and thinks - a person. All these and other mental processes are included in the personal context. It is no coincidence, therefore, that the outstanding Russian psychologist V. N. Myasishchev said that the psychology of impersonal processes should be replaced by the psychology of an active personality. It is only conditionally possible to consider these processes in isolation from their carrier - the individual. We know that depending on the attitudes of the individual, which are different for different people, a person perceives the surrounding reality in different ways, including the people around him. Personal attitude to this or that information affects the process of its memorization (and forgetting too). Personal characteristics, attitudes, subjective attitude towards specific people directly affect a person's behavior, his interaction and communication with others, etc.

What is personality in psychology? There are various definitions of this concept, which, despite all the differences among themselves, nevertheless, in the main, do not contradict each other. So, in the future, when we say "personality", we will mean that a person is a social individual, the subject of social relations, activity and communication. In a somewhat simplified form, we can say that the term "individual" denotes the biological essence of a person, and the term "personality" - his social essence. An individual is born, but a person becomes. However, it would be wrong to imagine the existence of these two hypostases of a person in a separate and independent form.

The social in man is not divorced from the biological. The individual beginning is included in the personality and manifests itself in the personal, but it manifests itself already being “recycled”, assimilated into the personality, that is, at a higher personal level. In this regard, the remark (Klimov E.A., 1996) that disputes about the dominance of "social" or "biological" in a person is as "relevant" and "logical" as well as disputes about the dominance of machine and metal seems to be very apt. in a typewriter or book and paper in a book.

The idea of the systemic unity of the biological and the social in the personality also characterizes the understanding of the personality by E. Fromm, an outstanding psychologist and philosopher of the 20th century, who believed that the personality is the integrity of innate and acquired mental properties that characterize the individual and make him unique. Personality includes both temperament, and abilities, and features of the emotional-volitional sphere, and character. But still, the essence of personality is its value orientations, its motivational sphere, its system social relations and attitudes, including necessarily self-attitude.

Classical mechanism attempts to derive psychic phenomena directly from external influences. The reflection of this approach at the level of personal phenomenology is mechanistic the concept of socialization of the individual, assuming that the individual is a mirror image, a "cast" social impacts rendered on it at different times in the process of ontogeny. We have specially singled out the term "mechanistic", wishing to emphasize that the phenomenon of the socialization of the individual can not necessarily be understood in such a simplified way. By and large, the indicated mechanistic concept of the socialization of the individual, in essence, is not psychological at all.

In contrast to what has been said, for many theories in the broad field of personalistic psychology, a radically oppositional approach is characteristic, explaining mental phenomena based only on intrapersonal formations (motivation, attitudes, needs, drives, personal properties, etc.). According to S. L. Rubinshtein, one cannot look for a solution to the issue and overcoming this antithesis in combining them, arguing that it is necessary to take into account both external influences and the internal conditioning of mental phenomena by a person, thus accepting the theory of two factors.

Trying to overcome the noted contradiction between these two concepts, S. L. Rubinshtein offers his famous formula: external causes always act only indirectly through internal conditions. It is emphasized that when explaining any mental phenomena, a person acts as a set of internal conditions connected together, through which all external influences are refracted. These internal conditions themselves include mental phenomena - mental properties and states of the individual (Rubinshtein S.L., 1976). Such an approach overcomes mechanistic sociologization and is, of course, psychological. Psychological, but by no means panpsychological - considering a person as a "thing in itself", self-sufficient and isolated from society.

1.2. Some models of personality

Today in psychology there is no single generally accepted theory of personality. However, there are a number of theories that have significant influence and a large number of supporters. There are a great many such theories, concepts and models of personality. Let us dwell briefly only on some well-known models of personality.

There are personality theories that are known not only to psychologists, but also to the general population. One of these concepts is psychodynamic theory of personality Z. Freud. According to Freud, personality is formed by three structural components: id (it), ego (I) and super-ego (super-I). The sphere of the id is the instinctive core of the personality. Powerful instincts, located in the sphere of the id, require their implementation and determine (directly or indirectly) the behavior of the individual. In general, the functioning of the id sphere is subject to the principle of pleasure. In Freud's psychodynamic theory, two main instincts are distinguished - the sexual instinct, also interpreted as the life instinct (libido, eros), and the destructive, destructive instinct, interpreted as the death instinct (mortido, thanatos). Such a form of human behavior as aggression is considered in this concept as an instinctive form of behavior, as a manifestation of the destructive instinct of the individual.

The sphere of the ego is the rational part of the personality, that is, the sphere of consciousness. The ego is in constant interaction with the realm of the id, trying to prevent the dangerous, maladaptive manifestations of the two basic instincts. The rational sphere of the ego must develop for the individual such programs of action that, on the one hand, would satisfy the requirements of the id, and on the other hand, would take into account the requirements and limitations of the social world and the person’s own consciousness. The functioning of the ego realm is determined by the reality principle.

The sphere of the super-ego is the sphere of the moral self of the individual, which includes a system of norms, values, ethical ideas that are consistent with the requirements of society. This sphere is formed in the process of socialization and, according to Freud, is the last (in a temporary sense) component of a developing personality. The realm of the super-ego, although not instinctive, like the id, is in conflict with the rational ego. It can be said that the superego is trying to convince the ego to prioritize idealistic goals over realistic ones.

The psychodynamic concept of Z. Freud has many opponents and no less supporters. Perhaps this is the theory about which the largest number of extreme, radical value judgments are expressed - from enthusiastic acceptance to unconditional rejection. In the most extreme form, the rejection of psychoanalysis by scientific psychology was formulated by the world-famous psychologist P. Fress, who once said that psychoanalysis is faith, and in order to believe, one must first “kneel down.”

personality theory A. Adler known as individual personality theory, or individual psychology. This theory also traditionally belongs to the psychoanalytic direction (Adler is one of the first and favorite students of Freud), although in reality most of the provisions of individual psychology developed as antitheses of Freud's theory. The theory of A. Adler, however paradoxical it may seem, in its spirit and basic conceptual provisions can be considered as a harbinger and forerunner of modern humanistic psychology.

The essential foundations of Adler's theory are associated with such concepts as: 1) fictitious finalism, 2) striving for superiority, 3) feelings of inferiority and compensation, 4) social interest, 5) lifestyle, 6) creative self.

Fictitious finalism. According to Adler, the main goals of a person, that is, those goals that determine the direction of a person's life, are fictitious goals - their correlation with reality cannot be verified. But, despite the fictitiousness, it is precisely the presence of such final goals is a real stimulus of human activity and explains his behavior. Some people, for example, may build their lives around the idea that hard work and a little bit of luck can accomplish almost anything. This statement (according to Adler) is only a fiction, since many of those who work hard do not get what they deserve. Other examples of fictitious beliefs that can influence the course of a person's life are the following: "Honesty is the best policy", "All people are created equal". The belief that the righteous will go to heaven and the wicked will go to hell undoubtedly also influences human behavior. This belief is also an example of fictitious finalism. The final goal, being a fiction, a kind of ideal representation, despite this, plays the role of a real stimulus, a motive for a very specific, sustainable human behavior.

“Individual psychology emphatically insists that psychological phenomena cannot be understood without being based on the principle of finalism. Causes, forces, instincts, motives cannot be the basis for an explanation. Only final goals can explain human behavior” (Adler A., 1930).

Striving for excellence. Initially, the ultimate goal to which all people aspire, Adler considered the desire for power. However, he later abandoned the term "will to power" in favor of the term "striving for superiority". At the same time, the desire for superiority is not limited to achieving a high social status or leadership. The pursuit of excellence is a general desire for growth, a movement in the direction of "bottom-up". Thus, the desire for superiority can be expressed in a huge number of different ways, and each person realizes this desire in his own way.

Feelings of inferiority and compensation. Feeling of inferiority is a feeling that arises in connection with the experience of one's own social or psychological inadequacy. This feeling arises from the feeling of defectiveness or imperfection in any area of life. The feeling of inferiority is inherent in almost all people. In fact, at the heart of everything that people do is the desire to overcome the feeling of their own inferiority and the strengthening of a sense of superiority. Therefore, the feeling of inferiority is not a sign of pathology. On the contrary, it is the cause of the perfection of man. At the same time, the feeling of inferiority under certain circumstances (for example, associated with improper upbringing) can intensify and reach an abnormal level. In this case, one speaks of the formation inferiority complex. Adler singled out three types of suffering experienced in childhood that can lead to the development of an inferiority complex: inferiority of organs, excessive guardianship, and rejection by parents. Committed to compensation inferiority leads a person to development - either in the area in which inferiority is felt, or in another. Demosthenes, who suffered from a stammer as a child and later became one of the greatest orators, is a classic example of compensating for the inferiority of an organ. However, in certain cases, compensation can give way to hypercompensation, as a result of which development can go along an abnormal path and lead to the formation of a compensatory superiority complex.

social interest. Social interest (or a sense of community), according to Adler, includes the desire for cooperation, for identification with a group, for the manifestation of empathy, etc. The concept of social interest in essence consists in the fact that people have a tendency to subordinate their personal needs , private benefit to the cause of social benefit, the common good. At its core, social interest is innate, since humans are inherently social beings. However, in order for this natural predisposition to manifest itself in due measure, certain efforts are needed. Spontaneously, automatically, it is unlikely to be realized. In the development of social interest great importance, thus, belongs to the social environment and upbringing, and already at the earliest stages of the development of the child.

Life style. It is rather difficult to define exactly what a life style is, since Adler himself presented this concept in different ways in his works. At the same time, it is the concept of life style that is considered the most characteristic feature of Adler's theory of personality. Yes, all people have a common basic goal - to achieve excellence, but the ways to achieve it are different and unique. Life style includes a unique combination of traits, behaviors and habits, which, taken together, constitute a unique picture of the existence of an individual. All human behavior is determined by his lifestyle. One person tries to gain superiority by developing his intellect, the other sees this path in physical improvement. Life style, according to Adler, is formed in childhood, approximately by the age of five, and does not undergo significant changes in the future. It is assumed that the life style is determined by the specific inferiority of the child, imaginary or real. That is, a life style is a compensation for a particular inferiority. It is based on our efforts to overcome feelings of inferiority and thereby reinforce a sense of superiority.

Creative I. The concept of the creative self is the most important and latest (including chronologically) element of Adler's theory of personality. According to the idea of the creative self, a person creates his own personality. Heredity and even subjective life experience are only material for creativity. And even such a fundamental concept for Adler as a lifestyle turns out to be subordinate to the creative self: the lifestyle is formed under the influence of the creative abilities of the individual. That is, each person is free to create their own lifestyle. Thus, it is the creative self that in Adler's theory is the root cause of personality - the root cause that determines both the life style and the development of social interest, and the very goals of life, as well as ways to achieve them.

The concept of personality has become widespread in psychology. G. Eysenck. In this theory, two dimensions of personality are distinguished (Eysenk, 1947): introversion - extraversion and neuroticism - stability. These two dimensions (or factors) are independent of each other. Each of the poles of these personality dimensions represents a certain super trait, since, according to Eysenck, each of them is based on a combination of several component features. In addition, each super-trait (for example, introversion) is not a discrete quantitative indicator, but a continuum of a certain extent. Therefore, in Eysenck's theory regarding superfeatures, the term "type" is used.

The extroverted type is characterized by the orientation of the personality to the outside world. Such people are characterized by: impulsiveness, initiative, flexibility of behavior, sociability, constant desire for contacts, craving for new experiences, uninhibited forms of behavior, high motor and speech activity. They easily respond to various proposals, “ignite”, take on their implementation, but they can also easily quit what they have started, taking on a new business.

The introverted type characterizes the orientation of the individual towards himself, towards the phenomena of his own world. Such people are characterized by low sociability, isolation, a tendency to introspection, reflection. Before undertaking anything, they analyze the conditions, the situation, the task; inclined to plan their actions. The external manifestation of emotions is under control, but this does not indicate a low emotional sensitivity, rather the opposite is true.

Depending on the combination of the parameters "introversion - extraversion" and "neuroticism - stability", all people can be divided into four groups (Table 1.1).

Table 1.1. Categories of people that stand out on the basis of a combination of superfeatures (Eysenk, 1975)

It is important to note that presented in Table. 1.1 traits that describe a particular type of personality belong to the extreme variants of the type. It is clear that with less pronounced features (extroversion, introversion or neuroticism), the descriptions will be more “soft”, not so categorical.

Over the years of the existence of this concept, a huge number of studies have been carried out around the world, the purpose of which was to identify differences between types. As a short excerpt from them, we present the following facts (Wilson, 1978; Kjell L., Ziegler D., 1997). It has been empirically established that:

Extroverts are significantly more pain tolerant than introverts;

Extroverts take more breaks during work to chat and drink coffee than introverts;

Introverts prefer theoretical and scientific activities, while extroverts tend to prefer work related to people;

Introverts feel more alert in the morning, while extroverts feel more alert in the evening. Accordingly, introverts work better in the morning, and extroverts in the afternoon;

Introverts are more likely to be admitted to the practice of masturbation than extroverts. But at the same time, extroverts have sex at an earlier age, more often and with a greater number of partners than extroverts.

Much later than Eysenck described extraversion and introversion, he introduced another dimension into his theory - psychotism. Thus, at present, not two, but three orthogonal (independent) dimensions of personality are distinguished in Eysenck's theory. People with a high degree of manifestation of such a super-feature as psychotism are egocentric, impulsive, indifferent to others, prone to antisocial behavior, it is difficult to contact people and do not find understanding with them, they are characterized by conflict and inadequacy of emotional reactions.

In the personality model K. K. Platonova, which is known as dynamic functional structure of personality, there are four procedural-hierarchical substructures of personality. This sets the subordination of lower and higher substructures. The main substructures of personality are: 1) personality orientation, 2) experience, 3) features of mental processes, 4) biopsychic properties. In turn, each of these substructures consists of a number of components, which Platonov calls "substructures of substructures". The orientation of the personality includes beliefs, worldview, ideals, aspirations, interests, desires. Experience includes habits, abilities, skills and knowledge. The substructure "features of mental processes" is sensation, perception, memory, thinking, emotions, will, attention. Biopsychic properties include temperament, gender and some age characteristics.

On the substructures of the personality, in addition, abilities and character are superimposed. All substructures differ from each other in the degree of representation of the social and biological in them, the specifics of their development and formation in the process of life, as well as their correlation with a specific level of psychological analysis. The hierarchy of the main personality substructures, as well as their content, are presented in Table. 1.2.

Table 1.2. The main substructures of personality and their hierarchy (according to Platonov K. K., 1984)

A country:

USSR →
Russia

Scientific area: Academic degree: Academic title:

corresponding member of RAO

Alma mater: Awards and prizes

Artur Alexandrovich Rean(March 8, Ufa) - Russian psychologist, public figure; specialist in the field of personality psychology, social and educational psychology. Doctor of Psychology (1992), Professor (1994), Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Education (1996) in the Department of Psychology and Developmental Physiology, Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation (2007).

Biography

Scientific activity

A. A. Rean's research is concentrated in the field of personality psychology, pedagogical psychology, the psychology of asocial and delinquent behavior and its prevention, the psychology of aggression, the problems of overcoming the negative consequences of social orphanhood, the psychology of socialization and social maturity of the individual, the psychology of social adaptation of the individual.

He is one of the founders (together with Ya. L. Kolominsky) of a new scientific direction - social pedagogical psychology.

Head and developer of a number of complex scientific and practical programs, among which the most significant are "Prevention of drug addiction and asocial behavior of youth" (1998-2001), "Psychology of aggressive behavior" (Presidential grant, 1997-1999), "Social protection of childhood" (2000- 2002), "Families and children at risk" (2002-2006), "Strong family" (2006-2011).

Member of dissertation councils at Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov (in social psychology and developmental psychology) and at the Moscow University of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation (in labor psychology and pedagogy). Member of the Expert Council of the All-Russian Foundation for the Support of Children in Difficult Life Situations. For a long time he was a member, and later deputy chairman of the expert council on psychology and pedagogy of the Higher Attestation Commission of the Russian Federation.

Over the years, he was the chairman of the doctoral dissertation council on educational psychology, as well as the deputy chairman of the council on social psychology at St. Petersburg State University, a member of doctoral dissertation councils at the Russian State Pedagogical University. A. I. Herzen, at, at the Russian Academy of Civil Service under the President of the Russian Federation.

A. A. Rean is the founder of a scientific school in the field of personality psychology and social pedagogical psychology. Among the most famous and authoritative representatives of this scientific school are Doctors of Psychology, Professors A. A. Baranov (Director of the Institute of Psychology and Pedagogy of UdGU, Izhevsk), S. N. Kostromina (Deputy Dean of the Faculty of Psychology of St. Petersburg University), A. R. Kudashev (Head of the Department of Psychology of Administration and Management of the Bashkir Academy of Public Administration under the President of Bashkortostan, Ufa), V.M. N. Simaeva (Dean of the Faculty of Psychology, Head of the Department of the Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, Kaliningrad), VL Tsvetkov (Head of the Department of Legal Psychology, Moscow University of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia).

In 2000-2004 was chairman of the editorial board of the magazine "World of Childhood". Member of the editorial boards of journals:

Russian Psychological Journal (since 2005),
"Bulletin of practical psychology of education" (since 2005),
“Bulletin of the Russian State University. I. Kant "(since 2007),
"Bulletin of the Fund for Helping Children in Difficult Life Situations" (since 2009),
"Protect Me" (since 2011).

Selected writings

General psychology and personality psychology / Ed. A. A. Reana. - M.; SPb., 2007.
Psychology of a teenager / Ed. A. A. Reana. - M.; SPb., 2003, 2007.
Human psychology from birth to death / Ed. A. A. Reana. - M.; SPb., 2001, 2004.
Rean A. A. Psychology of the study of personality. - St. Petersburg. , 1999.
Rean A. A. Psychology of personality: Socialization, behavior, communication. - M.; SPb., 2004.
Rean A. A., Bordovskaya N. V., Rozum S. I. Psychology and pedagogy. - St. Petersburg. , 2000, 2008.
Rean A. A., Kolominsky Ya. L. Social pedagogical psychology. - St. Petersburg. , 1999, 2008.
Rean A. A., Kudashev A. R., Baranov A. A. Psychology of personality adaptation. - St. Petersburg. , 2002.|| . - M.; SPb., 2006.
Family: psychology, pedagogy, social work / Ed. A. A. Reana. - M., 2009.

Social activity

expert and board member of the European Association for Socially Disadvantaged Children (ENSCW, Brussels, Belgium, 1998-2004);
member of the advisory council at the commission of the Federation Council of the Russian Federation on youth and sports (2003-2004);
Member of the Presidium of the Federation of Educational Psychologists of the Russian Federation (since 2003);
head of the social and psychological problems juvenile Federation of Educational Psychologists of the Russian Federation (since 2004);
member of the Presidium of the Scientific and Methodological Council for Basic Psychological Education of the UMO of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation (since 1998);
Chairman of the State Attestation Commission of the Faculty of Psychology of Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov (2002-2007);
member of the expert council of the Federal Foundation for the Support of Children in Difficult Life Situations (since 2009);
Assistant to the Deputy Chairman of the Federation Council of the Russian Federation (2006-2009).

Awards

Notes

Links

Categories:

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March 8
Born in 1957
Born in Ufa
Doctors of Psychology
RAO Corresponding Members
Honored Workers of Science of the Russian Federation
Psychologists alphabetically
Psychologists of Russia
Psychologists of the USSR
Psychologists of the 20th century
Psychologists of the 21st century

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The book of the outstanding Russian scientist Professor A. A. Rean is devoted to the psychology of personality and is an indispensable textbook for students of all psychological specialties. The book contains a huge amount of factual material, as well as a psychological workshop and test methods, both classical and developed with the participation of the author. Particular attention is paid to general and applied issues of pedagogical communication, the need for a connection between pedagogy and personality psychology is emphasized.

Personality socialization

2.1. The concept of socialization

Man is a social being. From the first days of its existence, it is surrounded by its own kind. From birth, he is included in social interactions. A person acquires the first experience of social communication even before he learns to speak. In the process of social interaction, he acquires a certain social experience, which, being subjectively learned, becomes an integral part of the personality. Socialization is the process and result of the assimilation and subsequent active reproduction of social experience by the individual. The process of socialization is inextricably linked with communication And joint activities of people. From the point of view of psychology, socialization cannot, however, be regarded as a simple, mechanical reflection by a person of direct social experience experienced or obtained as a result of observation. The assimilation of this experience is subjective. The same social situations are perceived differently, experienced differently by different people. Therefore, different personalities can endure different social experiences from objectively identical social situations. This position is one of the foundations underlying strong connection two simultaneously opposite and unified processes - socialization And individualization.

The process of socialization can be carried out both in special social institutions and in various informal associations. Special social institutions, one of the most important functions of which is the socialization of the individual, include schools, vocational schools (educational institutions of primary vocational education, technical schools, universities), children's and youth organizations and associations. The most important institution of the socialization of the individual is the family. Socialization can be both regulated, purposeful, and unregulated, spontaneous, at the same time. What is the relationship between the concepts of "education" and "socialization"? Education, in essence, is one of the forms of socialization of the individual, namely, a controlled and purposeful process of socialization. However, it would be a great simplification to imagine that in official social institutions (school, for example) socialization always has a purposeful character and cannot be spontaneous in form, while in informal associations it is the other way around. Opportunity simultaneous The existence of socialization both as a purposeful and as an unregulated process will be explained with the help of the following example. Of course, important knowledge is acquired in a lesson at school, many of which (especially in social and humanitarian disciplines) have direct social significance. However, the student in the lesson learns not only the social knowledge that is the goal of the lesson, not only the social rules and norms of behavior that are declared by the teacher in the process of teaching and education. The student also learns the social experience that is concomitant, "accidental", from the point of view of the teacher or educator. This is not an experience of declared rules and norms, but a really experienced or observed experience of social interaction between a teacher and students, students among themselves, and teachers among themselves. And this experience can be both positive and negative. It may coincide with the goals of the upbringing process (and then it lies in the mainstream of this purposeful process of socialization of the individual) or contradict the goals set.

Can be distinguished primary And secondary socialization. It is generally accepted that primary socialization is much more than just cognitive learning, and is associated with the formation generalized image of reality. The nature of secondary socialization is determined by the division of labor and the corresponding social distribution of knowledge. In other words, secondary socialization (P. Berger, T. Lukman) is the acquisition of role-specific knowledge, when roles are directly or indirectly related to the division of labor. There is also a slightly different idea, in which (B. G. Ananiev) socialization is considered as a process that proceeds in the following two directions - the formation of a person as a person and the formation of a person as a subject of activity. The final effect of this socialization in the form of a person and in the form of a subject of activity is the formation of individuality.

Socialization is not the antithesis of individualization, the process of socialization does not lead to the leveling of the personality, the individuality of a person. Rather, on the contrary, in the process of socialization and social adaptation, a person acquires his individuality, but most often in a complex and contradictory way. We have already said that the assimilation of social experience is always subjective. The same social situations are perceived and experienced differently by different individuals. That is why they leave an unequal trace in the psyche, in the soul, in the personality of different people. Social experience, which is carried out by different people from objectively identical social situations, can be significantly different. Thus, the assimilation of social experience underlying the process of socialization also becomes a source of individualization of the personality, which not only subjectively assimilates this experience, but also actively processes it. The paradigm “from the social to the individual” widespread in personality psychology (and in the personality sciences in general) undoubtedly has serious grounds and deep meaning. However, its straightforward understanding and corresponding development deprive a person of the subjective principle, or at least make this principle insignificant. The construction of a genuine personality psychology on such a basis is devoid of any prospects and is simply impossible. Personality is not only a social individual, but also an active subject of social development, and, no less important, active subject of self-development. Thus, it is extremely important not only to talk about the assimilation of social experience by an individual, but it is imperative to consider a person as a . It seems that productive in this context is the idea that the individual is initially social (and not sometime later becomes social), and therefore his development is carried out (or Maybe be carried out?) in infinitely diverse directions, and not only from the public to the individual (Brushlinsky A.V., 1991). The further development of this approach in psychology does not, of course, imply a rejection of the concept of personality development in the process of socialization. Otherwise, it would have been another extreme. In fact, it is important to consider the individual as active subject of socialization.

Moreover, perhaps even the process of social adaptation of the individual should be considered as actively developing, and not only as actively adaptive. Although, perhaps, it is appropriate to note here that any process of development is inherent in the internal dynamics of gain and loss. No developmental process, as rightly noted (Paul B. Baltes, 1994), consists solely of growth and improvement.

The process of socialization does not end when a person reaches adulthood. The socialization of the individual, figuratively speaking, refers to the type of processes "with an indefinite end", although with a specific goal. And this process continues continuously throughout the entire ontogenesis of man. It follows from this that socialization not only never ends, but also “never is complete” (Berger P., Lukman T., 1995). Probably, someone can see in this the basis for pessimism and signs of fatal doom on the way to achieving perfection. It seems to us that there are rather more positive tendencies and optimistic beginnings here. For the noted incompleteness and incompleteness of development can be interpreted as the grounds for the infinity and unlimitedness of the personality's self-development.

2.2. Educational systems and personal development

Educational systems are all social institutions whose main purpose is to educate the individual. Thus, educational systems include primary and secondary schools, the system of primary vocational education, technical schools, higher vocational schools, various systems for advanced training and retraining of personnel, etc. Educational systems, like any system in general, have their own structure, consist of certain elements that are interconnected. The interaction of various elements of the educational system or its subsystems is aimed at achieving general for the goal system, an overall positive outcome. Such an ultimate goal of any educational system is the training, education and development of the individual. The measure of achieving this goal is the result, which in the end must always be sought in graduate personality, and not in impersonal new formations such as teaching technologies, upbringing methods, organizing the educational process, creating a material base, etc. Separate subsystems of the educational system, including the psychological service as a subsystem, may have their own specific goals. But these goals are only a concretization of the general goal, the transformation of this general goal into special tasks (psychological, pedagogical, methodological, etc.). It can be said that all elements of the educational system are included not only in the process of interaction, but the main feature of their connection is cooperation aimed at achieving the goals of training, education and development of the individual.

The development of a student as a person, as a subject of activity, is the most important goal and task of any educational system and can be considered as its backbone component. In modern school practice, however, development is by no means always understood as a complex task: there is a clear and strong imbalance in attention to the problems of (1) intellectual development and (2) personal development, with the first aspect undoubtedly predominating. Moreover, often development as a task is not consciously posed at all, and the problem of development is replaced by the question of knowledge transfer students. All this reflects the existence didactic dominant in the modern school, which is implemented in practice and has its psychological roots in the individual and collective professional consciousness of teachers.

However, the school, as a social institution, must prepare for life. And life is not only academic knowledge. Socialization is not limited, of course, to the transfer of knowledge about the fundamentals of the sciences. The development of a person in school as a person and a subject of activity is a must: (1) the development of intelligence, (2) the development of the emotional sphere, (3) the development of resistance to stressors, (4) the development of self-confidence and self-acceptance, (5) the development of a positive attitude to peace and acceptance of others, (6) development of independence, autonomy, (7) development of motivation for self-actualization, self-improvement. Including the motivation of learning as the most important element of self-development motivation.

All these ideas taken together can be called positive pedagogy or humanistic psychology of education and training. Their practical implementation in school practice is unthinkable without the participation of psychologists and requires further dynamic formation of the system of school psychology.

2.3. Socialization of aggression

Consideration of this issue would be appropriate to begin with the definition of the basic concept. This is all the more necessary to do, since the term "aggression" even in the scientific literature sometimes refers to significantly different phenomena. The broad use of the concept of "aggression" in the language of "man from the street" has reached such a level that generally leads to blurring of the boundaries of the described phenomenon. By aggression we mean any intentional actions, intended to harm another person, a group of people or an animal. If we talk about intraspecific aggression, then the definition becomes even more concise and should be associated with causing damage to another person or group of people. Despite the differences in the definition of the concept of aggression by different authors, the idea of causing damage (harm) to another subject is almost always present. Differences in the definition of aggression are usually associated with other, but also very important criteria. So, E. Fromm (Fromm E., 1973) defines aggression more broadly as causing damage not only to a person or animal, but also to any inanimate object. According to this position, R. Baron's ideas about aggression (Baron R., 1994) differ significantly from Fromm's. R. Baron specifically focuses on this criterion and emphasizes that only those actions that cause harm to living beings can be considered as aggressive. This criterion can, it seems to us, be accepted, but with one obvious clarification: harm (damage) man can also be inflicted by causing harm to any inanimate object, on the state of which the physical or psychological well-being of a person depends.

The concepts of aggression and aggressiveness are not synonymous. In what follows, by aggressiveness we mean personality property, expressed in readiness for aggression. Thus, aggression - certain actions causing damage to another object; A aggressiveness is a personality trait expressed in readiness for aggressive actions against another. Aggressiveness also includes a social-perceptual component, which in this case consists in the readiness (inclination) of the individual to perceive and interpret the behavior of another as hostile. In this regard, obviously, one can talk about the potential aggressive perception and potentially aggressive interpretation as a stable for some people personal features of the worldview and worldview.

The current theories of aggression explain the causes and mechanisms of aggressive human behavior in different ways. Some of them associate aggression with instinctive drives (Z. Freud, K. Lorenz), in others, aggressive behavior is interpreted as a direct reaction to frustration (J. Dollard, L. Berkowitz), in others, aggression is seen as a result of social learning (A. Bandura ), there are also many modifications and varieties of these approaches. The available experimental data to some extent confirm all the main theories of aggression. We believe, however, that this is not evidence of a crisis of theories, but only speaks of the multidimensionality and diversity of the phenomenon of aggression, of its multifactorial conditionality as a behavioral act and aggressiveness as a personality trait. In fairness, it should be noted that the frustration theory of aggression and the theory of social learning are still the most experimentally confirmed.

Socialization of aggression, according to our definition, is the process and result of mastering the skills of aggressive behavior and the development of aggressive readiness of the individual in the course of acquiring social experience by the individual. Socio-ontogenetic determination of aggressiveness is confirmed by numerous results of studies of the process of socialization, social learning and ontogenetic development of the personality (P. Mussen, J. Conder et al., A. Bandura, Q. Patterson, S. Belicheva, S. Kudryavtsev, A. Rean, V. Semenov). Research by the Oregon Center for the Study of Social Learning has shown, in particular, that families that produce highly aggressive children are characterized by special interactions between family members. This interaction takes the form of an "expanding spiral" that maintains and reinforces aggressive behaviors. It has been reliably established that child abuse in the family leads not only to the manifestation of aggressive behavior towards other children (R. Burges, R. Conger) at the same age, but also to the development of aggressiveness, a tendency to violence and cruelty in adults age (S. Widom), turning physical aggression into a lifestyle of the individual (R. Hitchock). The concept of social learning is also supported by the fact that the most pronounced differences between aggressive and non-aggressive children are found not in the preferences of aggressive alternatives, but in ignorance of constructive solutions (L. Koltikandass-Jarvinen, P. Kangas). We believe that the same vein of ontogenetic determination of aggression should be used to interpret the data obtained in our own studies on a high level of aggression in a sample of modern, outwardly quite prosperous high school students. As it turned out, high indicators for the parameter " spontaneous aggression» have 53% of the examined, and significantly low - only 9%. The rest of the indicators are at the level of the average norm. So, 53% with high spontaneous aggression. But what is spontaneous aggression here? Spontaneous aggression is the subconscious joy experienced by a person when observing the difficulties and difficult situations of others. Such a person takes pleasure in poking others into their mistakes. This is a spontaneous, unmotivated desire to spoil someone's mood, annoy, anger. Such a person likes to confuse the other with his question or answer. High scores on another parameter, "reactive aggression", have 47% of the examined, and low - only 4%. But reactive aggression is just a manifestation of aggressiveness in interaction, in communication as a typical reaction. Such people are distrustful. As a rule, they simply do not forgive offenses and remember them for a long time. Characteristic is the bright aggressiveness in defending one's interests and, in general, the conflict of the individual. Finally, superimposed on all this are high indicators for irritability: 56% high, only 4% low. And irritability is emotional instability, irascibility, fast loss self-control. At the same time, even small things often cause a sharp reaction. All this data is not encouraging. A society sick with aggression and intolerance infects the younger generation with this disease. The danger lies in the fact that in the new generation the disease may become congenital and mass, thus capable of turning from a social pathology into a social norm. Incidentally, the term infection we use here without any quotes intentionally, since the mechanisms of imitation and psychological infection are not metaphors, but, in fact, objectively existing psychological mechanisms.

We believe that it would be useful to distinguish ordinary And paradoxical socialization of aggression. Ordinary socialization of aggression is the direct assimilation of the skills of aggressive behavior and the development of the aggressive readiness of the individual as a result of either direct active experience, or the experience of observing aggression. Note in passing: there is a lot of experimental data from which it follows that learning through observation has an even greater influence on the personality than direct active experience. At paradoxical socialization of aggression, the development of the aggressive readiness of the individual occurs regardless of the presence of direct experience of aggressive interaction or the experience of observing aggression. Aggression as a stable personal characteristic is formed in this case due to the presence of significant social experience of suppressing the possibilities of realizing his actual personal needs. Moreover, it is understood that this suppression is carried out out of the aggressive context, without the manifestation of physical or verbal aggression or hostility (in the meaning of this term according to A. Buss). On the contrary, the blocking of actual personal needs is most often realized in the given experience of social interaction with “care” for the individual, in “its interests”, which takes place, for example, during the socialization of the individual within the framework of the educational strategy described as hyperprotection. Thus, the paradoxical socialization of aggression can be seen as phobic-aggressive a trace of deprivation social experience. Indirect empirical confirmation of the proposed approach is obtained by us (Rean A. A., 1994), paradoxical, from traditional positions, data on the presence of a very definite relationship direct order between such personality formations as shyness and spontaneous aggressiveness.

2.4. Development and socialization of personality in the family

The family is the most important institution of the socialization of the individual. It is in the family that a person receives the first experience of social interaction. For some time, the family is generally the only place for the child to receive such an experience. Then social institutions, such as a kindergarten, a school, a street, are included in a person's life. However, even at this time, the family remains one of the most important, and sometimes the most important factor in the socialization of the individual. The family can be seen as a model and form basic life training personality. Socialization in the family occurs both as a result of a purposeful upbringing process and through the mechanism of social learning. In turn, the process of social learning itself also goes in two main directions. On the one hand, social experience is accumulated in the process direct interaction child with parents, brothers and sisters, and on the other hand, socialization is carried out at the expense of observations features of social interaction of other family members with each other. In addition, socialization in the family can also be carried out through a special mechanism of social learning, which is called " vicarious learning". Vicarious learning is concerned with the acquisition of social experience by observing the learning of others.

To study the influence of parenting style on social development many studies have been devoted to children. Consider the results of one of them (D. Baumrind). During the study, three groups of children were identified. the first the group consisted of children who had a high level of independence, maturity, self-confidence, activity, restraint, curiosity, friendliness and ability to understand the environment (model I). second the group was formed by children who were not self-confident enough, withdrawn and distrustful (model II). Third the group consisted of children who were the least self-confident, did not show curiosity, did not know how to restrain themselves (model III).

Four parameters of parental behavior towards the child were considered: control, the requirement of maturity, communication, goodwill. Control, that is, an attempt to influence the activity of the child. At the same time, the degree of subordination of the child to the requirements of the parents was determined. maturity requirement: parents exerting pressure on a child in order to force him to act at the limit of his mental capabilities, a high social and emotional level. Communication: the use of persuasion by parents in order to obtain concessions from the child, clarifying his opinion or attitude to something. benevolence: how parents show interest in the child (praise, joy from his success), warmth, love, care, compassion towards him.

What were the features of the styles of interaction between parents and children in families where children demonstrated different models of behavior? The results of the study are shown in fig. 2.1.

Rice. 2.1. Types of interaction of parents in accordance with the model of children's behavior

Behavior model I. Parents whose children matched behavior pattern I scored the largest number points for all four features. They treated their children tenderly, with warmth and understanding, benevolently, communicated with them a lot, controlled the children, demanded conscious behavior. Listening to the opinion of children, respecting their independence, parents in their actions did not proceed only from the wishes of the children, but adhered to their rules, directly and clearly explaining the motives of their own requirements. Parental control was combined with unconditional support for the child's desire to be self-reliant and independent. This model has been named authoritative parental control model.

Behavior Model II. Parents whose children followed Behavior Model II had lower scores on the identified parameters. They relied more on severity and punishment, treated children with less warmth, less sympathy and understanding, rarely communicated with them. They tightly controlled their children, exercised their power easily, did not encourage children to express their own opinions. This model has been named overbearing.

Behavior Model III. Parents whose children followed Behavior Model III were indulgent, undemanding, disorganized, and had a poorly organized life. They did not encourage children, relatively rarely and sluggishly made comments, did not pay attention to raising the independence of the child and his self-confidence. This model has been named condescending.

Any deformation of the family leads to negative consequences in the development of the child's personality. There are two types of family deformation: structural and psychological. Structural deformation of the family is nothing more than a violation of its structural integrity, which is currently associated with the absence of one of the parents (previously, such deformation was also discussed in the absence of grandparents in the family). The psychological deformation of the family is associated with a violation of the system interpersonal relationships in it, as well as with the adoption and implementation in the family of a system of negative values, asocial attitudes, etc.

There are quite a lot of studies describing the influence of the factor of an incomplete family on the personality of a child. It has been established that boys perceive the absence of their father much more sharply than girls. In incomplete families, boys are more restless, more aggressive and cocky. The difference between boys in families with and without fathers is especially noticeable in the first years of children's lives. One study showed that two-year-old children whose fathers died before they were born, living with widowed mothers, were less independent, showed anxiety and aggressiveness to a greater extent than children who had fathers (Massen P., Conger J. et al., 1987). When studying older children, it turned out that the behavior of boys whose childhood passed without fathers turned out to be less masculine in comparison with those who had fathers. On the other hand, it turned out that the behavior and personality characteristics of girls who grew up only with their mothers are not much different from those who lived in a complete family. But in intellectual activity shows a difference.

For a long time it was believed that the structural deformation of the family is the most important factor responsible for the violation of the child's personal development. This was also confirmed by statistical data (both foreign and domestic), from which it followed that the samples of adolescents of pro-social and anti-social, including criminal, orientation differ significantly from each other according to the criterion “complete family - single-parent family”. Currently, more and more attention is paid to the factor of psychological deformation of the family. Numerous studies convincingly show that the psychological deformation of the family, the violation of the system of interpersonal relations and values in it have a powerful influence on the negative development of the personality of a child, a teenager, leading to various personal deformations - from social infantilism to antisocial and delinquent behavior.

Disharmonious development of some traits of the child's character may be due to the peculiarities of family relationships. Underestimation by parents of the characteristics of the character of children can contribute not only to increased conflict family relations, but also lead to the development of pathocharacterological reactions, neuroses, the formation of psychopathic developments on the basis of accentuated features. Some types of accentuations are most sensitive or especially vulnerable to certain types of family relationships. In this regard, several types of incorrect education can be distinguished (A. E. Lichko).

Hypoprotection is a lack of guardianship and control, a true interest in the affairs, worries and hobbies of a teenager. Especially unfavorable for accentuations of hyperthymic, unstable type and conformal types.

The dominant overprotection is overprotection and petty control. It does not teach independence and suppresses a sense of responsibility and duty. It is especially unfavorable for accentuations of psychasthenic, sensitive and asthenic types, it enhances their asthenic features. In hyperthymic adolescents, it leads to a sharp reaction of emancipation.

Indulgent hyperprotection is a lack of supervision and an uncritical attitude towards behavioral disorders in adolescents. This cultivates unstable and hysterical traits.

Education "in the cult of disease" - a child's illness, even a minor ailment, gives the child special rights and puts him in the center of attention of the family. Egocentrism and rental attitudes are cultivated.

Emotional rejection - the child feels that they are weighed down. It has a severe effect on labile, sensitive and asthenic adolescents, enhancing the features of these types. The sharpening of features is also possible in epileptoids.

The conditions for a tough relationship are the venting of evil on a teenager and spiritual cruelty. Contribute to the strengthening of features in epileptoids and the development of epileptic features based on conformal accentuation.

Conditions of increased emotional responsibility - childish cares and high expectations are assigned to the child. The psychasthenic type turns out to be very sensitive, the features of which are sharpened and can turn into psychopathic development or neurosis.

Contradictory upbringing - incompatible educational approaches various family members. Such upbringing can be especially traumatic for any type of accentuation.

Relationships with families change as they grow up. In the process of socialization, the peer group largely replaces parents(“depreciation” of parents, in the words of H. Remschmidt). The transfer of the center of socialization from the family to the group of peers leads to weakening emotional ties with parents. It should be noted that remarks about the "devaluation" of parents in adolescence and youth are very common and, one might even say, have become a commonplace. For example, for adolescence, a special behavioral feature "emancipation reaction" is described. Even attempts have been made to explain it from an evolutionary-biological point of view. All this is true as a general direction of the age development of the personality. However, the globalization of these ideas, the hyperbolization of the idea of “replacing parents” by a group of peers does not correspond much to the real psychological picture.

There is evidence that although parents as a center of orientation and identification recede into the background at this age, this applies only to certain areas of life. For most young people, parents, and especially the mother, remain the main emotionally close persons.

Thus, in one study by German scientists, it was shown that in problem situations, the most emotionally close, confidant for a teenager is, first of all, the mother, and then, depending on the situation, in different sequence - the father, girlfriend or friend. In another study, carried out on a domestic sample, high school students ranked who they would prefer to spend their free time with - with their parents, with friends, in the company of peers of the same sex, in a mixed company, etc. The boys' parents were on the last (sixth ) place, for girls - in fourth place. However, answering the question: “Who would you consult with in a difficult everyday situation?” - both of them put mother comes first. In second place for the boys was the father, for the girls - a friend, girlfriend. In other words, as the psychologist I.S. Kon noted about these results, it’s nice to have fun with friends, but in difficult times it’s better to turn to your mother. Latest data obtained from samples contemporary adolescents, boys and girls, confirm this trend. As shown in one such study (A. A. Rean, M. Yu. Sannikova), in the system of the relationship of the individual to the social environment (including the attitude towards peers), it was the attitude towards the mother that turned out to be the most positive. It was found that a decrease in a positive attitude towards the mother, an increase in negative descriptors (characteristics) when describing the mother correlates with a general increase in the negativeization of all social relations of the individual.

It can be assumed that behind this fact lies the fundamental phenomenon of the manifestation of total negativism (negativism towards all social objects, phenomena and norms) in those individuals who are characterized by a negative attitude towards their own mother. In general, as found in the study, a negative attitude towards the mother is an important indicator of the overall dysfunctional development of the individual.

Does the family remain a value for the younger generation today? Whose influence on children - maternal or paternal - is greater? How do modern children and teenagers perceive their parents? About what is going on with modern family in Russia and what can and should be done, Arthur Rean, a psychologist and executive director of the Strong Family federal project, talks about his relationship with mom and dad and his own father's experience.

Artur Alexandrovich Rean— Doctor of Psychology, Professor,Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Education, Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation, Chairman of the Scientific and Coordinating Council for Family and Childhood of the Russian Academy of Education. Born in 1957 in Ufa. In 1979 he graduated from the Bashkir State University, worked for a year as an intern-researcher at the psychological faculty of Leningrad University, in 1980 he entered graduate school there. In 1983 he defended his thesis, worked at the Bashkir University, then in Leningrad in the laboratory of pedagogical psychology of the All-Russian Research Institute of Vocational Education. In 1992 he defended his doctoral dissertation, worked at the Department of General Psychology of St. Petersburg University. Since 1996, Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Education. Since 2004, Professor of the Department of Psychology at the Moscow University of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, since 2007, Executive Director of the Strong Family Federal Project.

- Artur Alexandrovich, is fatherhood one of the main topics that interests you as a psychologist?

- My scientific interests so wide that one of my colleagues once joked: “When you read your books, you think that Rean is not a surname, but the name of an institute.” But seriously, my interests have always included the problems of children, adolescents, and deviant behavior. These are largely family problems, and I think that's why I was invited to the Strong Family federal project at the stage of its creation. It started in 2007, then 9 regions participated in it, today 70, although no one is forced to do this, it's just that more and more people in Russia understand the urgency of the problem.

The project has five main areas, fatherhood is one of them, but others intersect with it. For example, the prevention of social orphanhood. Where do social orphans come from? Often it all starts with the departure of the father from the family or with the fact that the father becomes an inveterate drunkard. Another area is crime prevention. In my opinion, this problem is also directly related to paternity. In the process of work, more and more attention began to be paid to paternity, recently, together with the Russian Academy of Education, they conducted a large-scale psychological and sociological study, in which more than seven thousand high school students from eight regions, from different federal districts, took part.

There was a question about the father. Naturally, children who grow up without fathers could not answer this question, but the question sounded like this: which of the listed qualities relate to your father? Further, a long list of positive and negative qualities was offered (equally divided), and here are the 10 qualities schoolchildren named most often: kind, family, authoritative, reliable, caring, smart, wise, humane, honest, responsible. Not a single negative quality was included in the top ten! This is how children perceive their fathers. Maybe, in fact, the father is not so reliable, not so caring, not so responsible, but if the child, answering the question, emphasized these qualities, it means that in the perception of his son or daughter he is like that, and that's great!

“But in reality, it’s not so great. Even in many complete, outwardly prosperous, well-to-do families, fathers have little or no participation in the upbringing of children. And you can't always blame them for that. Many come home from work when the children are already asleep or about to go to bed.

“And there are still so many missing for weeks. We at the Russian Academy of Education have a coordinating light on family and childhood issues, half of the council members are scientists from the Russian Academy of Education, half are practitioners, leaders of the Strong Family project. And at one meeting, our colleague from the region provided data ... I don’t remember the exact figure, but in the regions there are a huge number of fathers who work on a rotational basis: two weeks in Moscow, two weeks at home, weekends. That is, fathers are absent half the time. It is clear that this creates additional difficulties, but a lot depends on what the father does in his free two weeks at home, whether he takes care of the children at this time. There are fathers who do not go anywhere and work late, but they still do not take care of the children. So it's not decisive. I have traveled a lot all my life. Now my daughter is already an adult, 32 years old, and in her childhood there was a case when I was absent for seven years in a row on her birthday, but when I was not away, I always found time for her, it never occurred to me that I could otherwise.

In psychological research, problems in communicating with parents in adolescents and boys and girls have long been recorded. So, for example, in one of the studies it was found that the need for communication with parents among high school students is less than half satisfied, while the need for communication with peers is almost completely satisfied. The situation is even worse with the quality of communication, its trust, closeness. So it turned out that only 31 percent were satisfied with communication with their mother, and 9 percent of the surveyed high school students with their father. We cannot change the economic situation in the country - now it is such that many people have to leave home for two weeks every month - but we can and try to convey to the minds of fathers that it is unacceptable not to take care of children, that a man is not only a breadwinner, as they think some fathers.

- Is it known in which regions, in which social strata the situation with the family is more prosperous, where fathers are more involved in upbringing?

I don't know such statistics. Of course, a lot depends on the society, on the mentality, but in the global world, fashion trends penetrate even into Muslim countries: civil marriage, the attitude to the institution of the family as something outdated. But the degree of penetration of these trends is different, and in Russia, according to studies, it is less than in many other European countries. Dozens of studies of young people have been conducted by different scientists from different schools, and the family is always included in the top three values, and according to the results of most of these studies, it comes first.

- They answer that the value, and then get married (get married) and get divorced. Even among the Orthodox, churched, this is no longer a rarity.

- I think that one of the reasons for this mismatch - schoolchildren and young people treat the family as a value, but in practice many get divorced - is unpreparedness for family life. And to it it is necessary to prepare, teach.

It is best when a child learns this not purposefully, but absorbs it with mother's milk, if the parents, their attitude towards each other, towards him are such that one wants to imitate. It’s great when there is such an example, but we understand that many children will not have such a positive experience, and therefore a special school course is needed to prepare for family life, the course is not optional. We have already applied to the Ministry of Education, but have not received any response - they simply did not respond. In oral conversations, officials from the regional departments of education told me: Artur Alexandrovich, you will not succeed, the children are already overloaded.

Do they need such overloads? I am not suggesting that something be excluded from the program, but some things need to be reduced. Even when my daughter was at school, I looked at her textbooks on mathematics and physics, and there were things that had previously been studied only at the physics department or the mechmat of the university. And this is not in a physics and mathematics school, but in a general education school! Why study physics and mathematics in such a volume in a comprehensive school? Much of what was in those textbooks requires special mathematical abilities. I know what I'm talking about - I have a second education in psychology, and before that I graduated from the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics.

The school should not only give knowledge of subjects, but also prepare children for an independent life, so I am convinced that a course of preparation for family life is needed in the school curriculum. Many young families break up (and most divorces happen in the first five years of marriage) precisely because of ignorance of what problems in the family are almost inevitable, how they can be overcome. Knowledge comes with experience, but after such an experience you are already in your third marriage. Because he did not receive in time the knowledge necessary in family life.

Positive examples are no less important. IN Leningrad region held the competition "Golden Family". In each district of the region, married couples were found who had lived together for 50 or more years, met with them, got acquainted with their experience, and chose a winning family in each district, filmed a video about it, and ended with a festival attended by the winning families , and not alone, but with children, grandchildren, great-grandchildren. Each family talked about themselves, then there was a wonderful concert. I was at this event: a huge hall, a lot of young people. Then similar festivals were held in Bashkortostan and Samara. Amazing! Each such event is a contribution to strengthening the family. It is one thing when boys and girls are told how good a family is, and quite another when they see specific happy families.

Arthur Rean. Photo: website of the United Russia party

- Did you grow up in happy family? Was your father an example for you?

- Was. We are three brothers, I am the eldest, the middle one is one and a half years younger, the youngest is three. As is customary in a Russian family, the emotional part - care, affection, worries for sons - was on the mother, and the father took responsibility for the family, protecting the family. Not in words - he did not proclaim it - but we saw it, felt it. I remember the conversations in the evenings. I was 12-13 years old, my father came home from work. we had dinner, then he talked to me about life, and discussed very deep topics, I would even say philosophical, despite the fact that he had one grade education (and his mother had four). It was interesting for him to communicate with me, a teenager!

In what we, all three brothers, got higher education, a great merit of the parents. People are quite simple, poorly educated, they could not help us with the lessons, but they followed how we were studying, it was not all the same to them, and how they rejoiced at our successes! .. I saw my father's pride in front of his friends because I graduated from high school with a gold medal.

As a psychologist, I believe that the pride of parents for the child, for his successes, is very important both for establishing relationships with children and for increasing children's self-esteem. Of course, there is no need to invent merits that do not exist, but if the child has real merits, mark them, show your satisfaction with this in front of other adults. This is not only for the child, it is pleasant for the teenager.

When I was already under 40, in 1996, I was elected a corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Education, I then lived in St. Petersburg, and my mother remained in Ufa (my father died quite early when I entered graduate school), and I told her about it . A week later I find out that she gathered her neighbors, 10-15 people, and arranged a feast about the fact that "Arthur has become an academician with me." Probably only mothers can love their children so wholeheartedly. In psychology, there is a theory about the unconditional love of the mother and the conditional love of the father. According to this theory, a mother loves her children without any conditions, whatever they may be, according to the formula: "I love simply because you are." Father's love is conditioned by certain criteria, everyone has their own, but they are, and here the formula is different: "I love you because you do this and that, because you are such and such."

In the study that I already told you about, there was also this question: “Do you want your future family to be similar to the one in which you grew up?”. 42 percent answered yes, 34 percent no, and 24 percent don't know. And there was also a question: “Name the one who, in the process of growing up, had the greatest influence on you.” Father was named by 24 percent, mother by 57 percent. They also named grandparents, older brothers and sisters, but there are very small numbers - 8 and 6 percent, respectively. But the disproportion between father and mother is alarming. Of course, the role of a mother in the upbringing of children is huge, but fathers should not lose with such a big score!

So I can say to myself that I owe a lot to both parents, and that they, their relationship to each other, are still an example for me. Not because everything was perfect. I don't really believe that ideal families exist. As in any family, there were tense moments, conflicts, but there was never even a question of breaking up so that my brothers and I would grow up in an incomplete family. The family is cemented by the ability to forgive each other and find common ground.

In some psychological studies, there are questions: how do you imagine an ideal wife or an ideal husband? And there is no answer to this question. Because the very formulation of the question is not the same - there are no ideal husbands and wives, but there are perfect couples: he is not perfect, she is not perfect, but when combined, they fit together. My parents suited each other, and my brothers and I remember them with gratitude.

- You have already said that despite frequent business trips, you always found time for your daughter. How did you raise her?

- Not only did I find time, but I did a lot of work. This is not only necessary for the child, but also enriches the father, brings so much spiritual joy and satisfaction!

I am a fairly strict father. I made some demands on her both in terms of study and behavior. I will not say that they are overpriced, but strict. Many friends told me that this is wrong, that as long as the parents are alive and able to provide for the child, it is necessary that he behave as he wants. I doubted it, but recently I began to think: maybe they are right? However, there was a case when I was convinced that I raised her correctly. Without details - this is personal - but she did so that I was proud of her.

When she was at school, there was just a wave of drug trafficking, and I was not afraid to talk to her about this topic, I explained what threats the school posed, that this muck could be offered to her not only by some punks, but also by someone from girlfriends. He spared no time for such conversations and for conversations on many other topics that were important to her at a certain age or in a certain state of mind.

In answering your question, I suddenly realized something I had never thought about before: she was always just as interested in talking to me as I was with my father. She is also a psychologist, so we have many common professional interests, but we talk with her for a long time not only on professional topics, but also on cultural, everyday, human issues.

- Did the brothers consult with you on how to raise children?

- And the brothers used to consult - they have three children - and one of the nieces, who already has four, consults. Besides, everyone has my books.

Photo: Strong Family project website

- When you accept someone into your program, are you interested in how he is with his family? After all, it is unlikely that people will believe the words about the importance and value of the family if they find out that the one who speaks does not have a family or that he is married for the third or fourth time.

- No matter how bad a divorce is, the reasons are different, both spouses are not always to blame for this, so we do not put such filters. But recently, in one region – I won’t name it – it was necessary for objective reasons to change the head of the program, and they called us from there, gave the name of a respected person there, said that they would recommend him, and a week later they called again and said that they had appointed another person. "Why?" we wondered. It turned out that the first candidate came to them himself and said: “I am ready to work hard, develop new projects, but I have a second marriage, if there are questions, please give me any other direction, not a family one.” What can I say? Well done! The responsible person.

And there are such hotheads among people who are supporters of the family movement that they have to be restrained. At the end of last year, there was one big conference on family issues, and they proposed a draft document in which it was formulated what can be considered a family and what is not. A family without children is not a family, with one child it is not a family, if there are children, but they grow up without a father (or without a mother - it happens that one father raises children) is also not a family. So it was written in the project! As soon as I heard, I immediately entered into a discussion, spoke at one and the other sections of this conference and said: “The goals are clear to me, but how to achieve them? It is good to promote a strong family, it is good when there are many children, but there are different reasons why one child or no children at all.

- It's just crazy. How many families there are where a child was born in the first or second year, but the birth was difficult, and then the woman could not get pregnant. Or, on the contrary, there were no children for 15-20 years, doctors said that the woman was infertile, the spouses literally begged for the child, and, contrary to all forecasts, she gave birth at 40-45 years old, naturally, this child remained the only one. And this, according to the authors of the project, is not a family?

- Exactly. And a woman who was abandoned by her husband with several small children (or one), and she raised them herself ... I saw many such women in different parts of our country. Selfless, sacrificial, give themselves entirely to children! And it happens, I repeat, that a father brings up children alone and also puts his soul into it. I have seen such fathers. And hotheads suggest that such families should not be considered families. Of course, this proposal did not pass, and at the first section I was even stormily applauded (although this is not very common at conferences of this kind), and Archbishop Michael of Geneva, who was present there, as soon as I finished my speech, said from his seat: “How can they to discuss the proposal that a family without children is not a family? When we get married in church, we proclaim that this is a family. Since the wedding! I am glad that extreme initiatives do not find support.

- On the other hand, having many children may be good, but not everyone can afford this cross. In the city, this is a feat.

- Certainly. Here, the head of our project, Sergei Pavlovich Korostelev, has seven children, and I have one daughter. It so happened, everyone has their own destiny, but this does not prevent us from promoting family values together. Of course, there will always be divorces, but we can make sure that they become less, that they are no longer perceived as the norm. We are working in this direction.

This textbook gives a complete picture of current knowledge in the field of childhood psychology from infancy to 11 years. The book is divided into four parts, each of which describes the features of the psychology of this age period according to the following vectors: cognitive features, affective sphere, motivational sphere, behavioral features, features of the self-concept.

The composition of the author's team of this book is unique. Seven doctors and five candidates of psychological sciences took part in the work on the book. Of these, three are academicians and one is a corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Education (in the Department of Psychology). This work presents the views of different psychological schools of the country.

For a wide range of professionals in the humanities, educators and parents.

Summary

PART I. REVIEW OF MAIN THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT...... 11

1. HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH .............................................. 12

2. FORMS AND AREAS (SPHERES) OF DEVELOPMENT .............................................. 15

3. DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES.............................................. ............ 18

4. THE CONCEPT OF FACTORS OF MENTAL DEVELOPMENT .............................. 21

5. PRINCIPLES OF MENTAL DEVELOPMENT .............................................. 25

6. REGULARITIES OF MENTAL DEVELOPMENT .............................. 31

7. THEORIES OF MENTAL DEVELOPMENT .............................................. 35

8. THE MECHANISM OF THE MENTAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD .............................. 51

9. DIAGNOSIS OF AGE DEVELOPMENT .............................................. 59

10. PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT............................................................... ..... 63

11. PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PEDAGOGY ............................. 70

12. AGE PERIODIZATION .............................................. 78

13. FEATURES OF THE PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDHOOD....................... 83

PART II. INFANTITY (BIRTH TO 2 YEARS) .. 91

CHAPTER 1. COGNITIVE FEATURES .............................................. 92

CHAPTER 2. AFFECTIVE SPHERE .............................................................. 110

CHAPTER 3. MOTIVATIONAL SPHERE .............................................. 122

Chapter 4

CHAPTER 5. BEHAVIOR ............................................................. 145

CHAPTER 6. SOCIALIZATION IN THE EARLY PERIODS OF HUMAN ONTOGENESIS........................................................... ....................... 157

PART III. EARLY CHILDHOOD (2 TO 6 YEARS).......... 178

CHAPTER I. COGNITIVE FEATURES .................................................. 179

CHAPTER 2. AFFECTIVE SPHERE .............................................................. 198

CHAPTER 3. MOTIVATIONAL AND PERSONAL SPHERE .............................. 212

CHAPTER 4. PECULIARITIES OF THE I-CONCEPT .............................................

CHAPTER 5. BEHAVIOR ............................................................. 238

CHAPTER 1. COGNITIVE FEATURES .................................................. 258

CHAPTER 2. AFFECTIVE SPHERE .............................................................. 273

CHAPTER 3. MOTIVATIONAL SPHERE .............................................. 286

CHAPTER 4. DEVELOPMENT OF THE SELF-CONCEPT ..............................................

CHAPTER 5

CHAPTER 6. CHILD AGGRESSION .............................................................. ... 334

PART IV. MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (AGES 6 TO 11)

Chapter 1

School readiness

Chapter 2

Emotional disorders in primary school age

Emotionally Disrupted Children

Chapter 3 Motivational sphere ................................. 286

Communication Motivation .................................................................. ...286

Motivation for communication with peers.................................................287

Motivation for Prosocial Behavior...............................................289

Formation of duty as the main moral motive ...................... 290

Empathy................................................. ............291

Motivation of educational activity ....................................... 292

Cognitive motives...............................................293

Social motives .............................................................. .295

Research activity in the field of the forbidden ..................................297

The need for physical activity .............................................299

Chapter 4................................. 302

I-real and I-perspective .......................................... 302

Body image and self-concept .............................................. .304

Development of self-esteem .............................................................. ...305

The structure of self-esteem. Interaction of the Cognitive and Emotional Components of Self-Esteem .............................................307

The influence of schooling on the development of a child's self-esteem ....... 309

Child's self-assessment and school performance.......................310

Opportunities for Self-Esteem Correction .............................................316

Developmental Disorders .................................................................. ..318

Borderline personality structure. Peculiarities of self-awareness of children from social risk groups ..........318

Chapter 5............................ 322

The development of the child as a subject of activity .................................... 323

Leading activities ..............................................323

Developing Physical Activity and Motor Skills.................................324

The development of the child's play activity ............................... 326

Development of fine motor skills ..............................................327

The Development of Social Behavior...............................................327

Behavior at school .................................................................. ....327

Behavior in the family ........................................................ ....328

Behavior in the circle of peers...............................................329

Gender differences .................................................................. ...331

Chapter 6..................................... 334

Definitions of aggression .................................................................. ..334

The influence of the family on the development of child aggression .............................................. 336

Aggression in sibling relationships..............................................337

Aggression and relationships with peers...............................338

Gender differences .............................................................. ....341

Origins of Aggression .................................................................. ..341

Displaced Aggression .................................................................. .343

Age results .............................................................. .........345

Literature................................................. ............348

The textbook contains a systematic presentation of the course of child psychology, which presents the basic concepts and theories of child development, reveals the laws of the child's mental development from birth to the end of preschool childhood. The development of the child is considered in the context of his communication with an adult, with special emphasis on the role of an adult in each age period. The information contained in the book will help the reader to create the basic psychological knowledge necessary for understanding the child, pedagogical work and communication with children.

The manual outlines the main theoretical views of leading domestic and foreign scientists in the field of child psychology, gives an idea of the age norm and the main trends in the development of the child at various age stages.

The proposed edition covers most of the main complex problems related to the theory and practice of child and adolescent development. Particular attention is paid to the problems of family education, taking into account those genetic prerequisites that provide the child with the most adequate ecological niche. Noting the imitative abilities of children, the author pays special attention to the adequate behavior of the parents themselves and the social environment that they create. preschool institutions and school. Saturated with many examples, the book meets the highest requirements of modern didactics: it presents the main definitions, a detailed subject index, control questions, complex situations that require creative thinking from readers.

Without a doubt, this publication will be very useful for teachers and students of pedagogical, medical, psychological and sociological profiles.

Science editor's preface

Foreword

Part I. Theory and Research in the Development Sciences

Chapter 1 Introduction to Developmental Psychology and its Research Strategies

What is development?

Human development in historical perspective

Research methods in developmental psychology

Reciprocal Detection: Correlation and Experimental Projects

Development study projects

Cross-cultural comparisons

Ethics of Development Research

P.S.: How to Become a Power User of Development Research

Chapter 2. Theories of human development

The nature of scientific theories

Questions and controversies related to human development

Psychoanalytic point of view

Learning Theory Perspective

Theory of cognitive development

Ethological (or evolutionary) point of view

Ecological systems theory

Theories and worldviews

Part II. Foundations of development

Chapter 3

Principles of transmission of genetic traits Chromosomal and genetic abnormalities

Practical applications: genetic counseling, prenatal diagnosis and treatment of hereditary disorders

Influence of heredity on behavior

Heredity and environment as interacting factors of development

Advantages and Disadvantages of Behavioral Genetics Chapter Summary

Chapter 4

From conception to birth environment on prenatal development

Childbirth and the perinatal environment

Birth complications

Readiness of newborns for life Summary of the chapter

Chapter 5

A Brief Overview of Maturation and Growth

brain development

motor development

Puberty: the physical transition from child to adult

Psychological collisions of puberty

Causes and correlates of physical development

Part III. Language (speech), learning and cognitive development

Chapter 6

Early controversy about sensory and perceptual development

Making sense of the infant's sensory and perceptual experience

Sensory abilities of infants

Visual perception in infancy

Intermodal perception

Basic learning processes

Reflections on perception and learning

Chapter 7. Cognitive development: Piaget's theory and Vygotsky's sociocultural concept

Piaget's theory of cognitive development

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

Assessment of Piaget's theory

Sociocultural theory of Vygotsky

Chapter 8 Cognitive Development: An Information Processing Approach

Information flow and multiple storage model

Individual Differences in Development of Information Processing Skills

Individual differences in the development of "software": strategies and knowledge about "thinking"

Alternative view: fuzzy trace theory

Development of attention

Memory: retention and retrieval of information

Problem solving and reasoning

Development of arithmetic skills

Evaluation of the information processing approach

Chapter 9

What is intelligence?

How is intelligence measured?

What do intelligence tests predict?

Factors affecting IQ

Social and cultural correlates of intellectual productivity

Improving Cognitive Productivity with Compensatory Learning

Creativity and specific talents

Chapter 10

Five Components of Language

Theories of speech development

Before language: pre-linguistic period

Monosyllabic speech: the period of holophrases

From holophrases to simple sentences: the telegraphic period

Language acquisition in the preschool period

Language learning in high school and adolescence

Bilingualism: problems and consequences of learning two languages

Part IV. Social and personal development

Chapter 11

Overview of Emotional Development

Emotions and early social development

Temperament and development

What are emotional attachments?

How do babies form attachments?

Individual differences in the quality of attachment

Factors Affecting Attachment Security

Attachment and further development

Indifferent child

Maternal employment, day care and early emotional development

Chapter 12

Self-concept development

Self-esteem

Development of achievement motivation and ideas about oneself as a subject of educational activity

Who am I supposed to be?

Formation of identity

The Other Side of Social Cognition: Knowledge of Others

Chapter 13

Division into men and women: gender role standards

Myths about gender differences

Development trends in gender typing

Theories of sexual typing and gender-role development

Psychological androgyny: an unwritten law of the 21st century?

Chapter 14

Development of aggressiveness

Altruism: Developing a Prosocial Self

What is morality?

Psychoanalytic explanations of moral development

Theory of Cognitive Development: The Child as a Moral Philosopher

Morality as a product of social learning and social information processing

The influence of parents on the moral development of children

Part V. Ecology of Development

Chapter 15

Understanding the Family

Socialization with parents in childhood and adolescence

Influence of siblings and their relationships

Variety of family life

When Parents Destroy: The Problem of Child Abuse

Reflections on the Family Chapter Summary

Chapter 16

The impact of television on children and adolescents

Development of children in the computer age School as an intermediary in socialization

Peers as intermediaries in the process of socialization

Parents and peers as mediators of influence

Chapter 17

Key Issues for Child and Adolescent Development

We've come a long way, baby...

But still so far to go