Lesson summary on the topic "prerequisites and causes of the reformation in Western Europe." John Wyclef's ideas

Background and causes of the Reformation in Western Europe

Following the beginning of the era of cultural renaissance, and intense international rivalry in Europe, a grandiose revolution began in the spiritual sphere, which took the form of a religiousReformation . The concept of "Reformation" refers to the widespread movement for the renewal of the Catholic Church that unfolded throughout Europe, which ultimately led to the formation of new, so-called "Protestant" churches. The Reformation took place at the height of , in which almost all European states were involved, which affected the course and characteristics of the Reformation in different countries.

There are quite a lot of reasons that prompted opposition-minded believers (Protestants) to break away from the Roman Catholic Church. In general, they can be classified and dispersed into three groups of reasons: disciplinary-canonical, dogmatic, moral. One of the most important factors that confused the religious conscience of the oppositionists was the absolutism of papal power - “papalism.” By the time of the Reformation, the doctrine of papal primacy was the guiding principle of the Roman Catholic Church. Thus, back in 1439, Pope Eugene wrote: “We also declare that the holy apostolic see and the Roman high priest has supremacy over the whole world, and that this Roman high priest is the successor of blessed Peter, prince of the apostles, and the true vicar of Christ, as well as the head of all Church and the father and teacher of all Christians, and that to him, in the person of Blessed Peter, full power was transferred by our Lord Jesus Christ to shepherd the Universal Church, to lead and govern it.”

In the famous work “The Augsburg Confession,” Protestants accused bishops [popes] of exceeding their powers not only in relation to believers, but also in relation to secular (state) authorities: “There were serious disagreements regarding the power of bishops, with which many were completely unjustifiably confused concepts such as the power of the Church and the power of the sword. And from this error arose great wars and confusions, while the bishops [popes], inspired by the power of the Keys, not only established new ministries and burdened hearts by not remitting sins and mercilessly excommunicating people from the church, but even arrogated to themselves the right to introduce changes in the kingdoms of this world and dethrone the emperor. These evil motives have long been denounced in the church by learned and pious people.”

The traditional “prohibitive” practice of celibacy of the clergy also caused strong protest sentiments. According to the same “Augsburg Confession”: “There was general discontent regarding cases of unchastity by priests. For this reason also, Pope Pius is reported to have said that there were certain reasons why priests were deprived of the right to marry, but that there were also more compelling reasons why this right should be restored to them... It is also obvious that what in ancient church the priests were married people." The oppositionists saw this ban as a violation of Divine institutions; from their point of view, the compulsory celibacy of the clergy contained a potential source of immoral behavior of the pastors of the Church: “while the commandment of God is in force, while the church tradition is well known, while wicked celibacy gives rise to a lot of slander, adultery and other crimes “Deserving the condemnation of the authorities, the merciless ban on the marriage of priests continues to be supported with amazing tenacity.” “The extent to which the demoralization of the clergy extended,” reports one of the researchers, “can be seen, for example, from the fact that the highest clergy in Rome kept brothels, so that there were up to 40,000 (?!) fallen women in them, who provided income to the clergy . The latter, even in the midst of the struggle against the spread of reform ideas, organized scandalous processions of these fallen women.”

Certain notes of protest were also addressed to the monasteries: “how few are those who took the vow of celibacy voluntarily and without coercion! Young girls and boys, before they reach the age when they can judge this matter, are convinced and sometimes even forced to take this vow... after all, it is clear to everyone that taking an oath involuntarily and frivolously is contrary to the essence of the oath itself.”

The level of education of society, according to the protesters, also left much to be desired. Here, for example, is what Martin Luther wrote on this occasion: “Have mercy, O righteous God, what hopeless darkness I am faced with! Ordinary people, especially in villages, have no idea about Christian teaching.” According to the compilers of the above-mentioned theological work, even the monasteries were struck by religious ignorance: “So, what happened to the monasteries? Previously, in the old days, they were schools of divinity and similar structures useful to the Church. Pastors and bishops came out from there. Now things are completely different. There is no need to repeat what everyone knows" ; “a person caught in this way and gone to a monastery knows little about Christ.” The papacy has been accused more than once or twice of distorting the truths of the Gospel: “The wonderful favor of Almighty God towards us has been manifested in the fact that in these last times and in this old world He willed, out of His unspeakable love, His long-suffering and mercy, that after the darkness of papal superstitions, the light of His Gospel and [the light of His] Word, through which, and only through which, we receive true salvation, should shine clearly and purely in Germany, our beloved fatherland." Many Roman Catholics (future Protestants) complained (not always rightly) about the distortion of the dogma of the Western Church; in this regard, the difficulties of holding open theological discussions, within the framework of which it would be possible to protest certain “dubious dogmas” certified by the authority of the popes, also pushed people towards discontent.

The closest and most immediate reason for the growth of protest was the sale of indulgences under Pope Leo X. It was this sale, accompanied by many abuses, that prompted Martin Luther to openly oppose the policies of the church authorities.

Humanism of the era placed the center of attention on man with his earthly, everyday interests, which was manifested even in the behavior of the high priests of the Catholic Church. At the end of the 15th - first half of the 16th century. The Roman throne was occupied one after another by popes distinguished by their desire for luxury, military glory and other matters far from serving God. These “Renaissance popes” were famous for their unscrupulousness and promiscuity in their affairs, not stopping at murder and other crimes in order to achieve their goals. It is clear that their behavior weakened the authority of the church and increased the desire for its reform.

One of the authors of the “Letters of Dark People” was the outstanding German humanist, the Franconian knight Uprich von Hutten (1488-1523). While traveling through Germany and Italy, he diligently studied ancient and Renaissance authors and became a master of satire, rhetoric, and journalism. Being an ardent supporter of Luther, Hutten openly opposed the Roman Catholic Church, which, in his opinion, shamelessly robbed Germany.

In his “Dialogues” (1520-1521) written in German, W. von Hutten focused on the numerous vices that flourished in Rome and the clerical environment. He was convinced that the political weakness and fragmentation of Germany were the result of the treacherous policies of papal Rome.

With the Reformation, Hutten pinned his hopes on the political revival of Germany, which was supposed to consist in strengthening imperial power through the power of princes and returning the knightly class to its former importance.

In general, the humanistic movement in Germany had distinct features that were determined by local conditions and ideological traditions. This concerned, first of all, the interest of humanists in those problems that worried wide circles of the German public: ethical and religious issues, the history and national development of the Germans, the political structure of Germany and the role of papal Rome in the humiliation of the Germans, the crisis of the Catholic Church.

Unlike Italian, which was more pagan (ancient), German humanism, although it was largely critical of the church, at the same time remained Christian. Biblical commandments and Christian morality were considered as the foundations of humanistic education.

Another feature of humanism in Germany was its connection with printing, which allowed humanists to quickly disseminate their ideas.

Separately, it is worth noting Johann Aventin, who, while studying the past of Bavaria, systematically examined the archives. His “Bavarian Chronicles,” written in German, a living and accessible language, became the first major historical work of the era addressed to a wide range of readers.

Assessing the importance of humanism in the preparation of the Reformation, it should be noted that with the critical fervor of their works, humanists created an environment for a more rational assessment of the actions of the Pope, the Catholic Church and individual clergy. The anti-papal tendency of humanism was expressed much more sharply in Germany than in Italy.

German humanists sought to criticize the church and its decrees (Holy Tradition) not only from the position of common sense, but also from the point of view of Christian morality, exposing the vices of the clergy. Humanism contributed to the preparation of the Reformation by developing rationalistic methods of studying the Holy Scriptures, striving to provide a new solution to the indigenous socio-ethical and political issues, ridiculing class prejudices, promoting patriotic ideas.

It is also important that for decades the criticism of the church by humanists was completely open and the church turned out to be powerless in the fight against them. Although only a small part of the Germans, usually well-educated, were ready to accept humanistic ideas, the humanists managed to strengthen dissatisfaction with the church in the public consciousness, show its apostasy from fulfilling its spiritual mission, and expand the field of accusatory criticism of the clergy.

All this brought humanists and reformers closer together. It is no coincidence that J. Calvin was fascinated by the works of Erasmus of Rotterdam, and W. von Hutten became an ardent supporter of M. Luther; Some leading reformers were also humanists - F. Melanchthon, W. Zwingli and M. Bucer. They were also united by the desire for spiritual perfection.

Erasmus of Rotterdam and Ulrich von Hutten, having gone through monastic seclusion in their lives, like Martin Luther, saw the formalism of the monastic vow, the external nature of Catholic piety and ritual, and preferred a different path - the path of searching for a new philosophy and theology. Despite all the differences in their tasks, they, one way or another, turned to one source - the Holy Scriptures.

Both reformers and humanists emphasized the importance of upbringing and education. Their political interests partly coincided. Like the reformers, the humanists pushed the secular elite to actively oppose Rome. A number of outstanding figures of humanism, in particular Hutten, with their works contributed to the spread of reformation ideas in Germany.

In addition to criticizing the papacy and the church, in his “Dialogues” Hutten definitely spoke out for the liquidation of church-monastic property and the abolition of celibacy of the clergy. He first published Lorenzo Balla's work on the forgery of the Donation of Constantine, the pillar of the theocratic claims of the papacy.

At the same time, many humanists did not accept the Reformation. The practice of reform revealed the discrepancy between the views of the majority of humanists and the ideologists of the Reformation. In Luther's Reformation, man was deprived of freedom of choice, the ability to act wisely, he ceased to be a creator, passively accepting the “mercy of God.”

The primacy of the cult of faith over the cult of reason and education, the limitation of thought to the biblical space, the split that the Reformation introduced into the world of people - all this led to a break between the humanistic tradition and the reformation one.

The position of Erasmus of Rotterdam is indicative, who believed that the Reformation did not bring spiritual freedom to man, but bound him with the chains of new Lutheran dogmatism, and that, along with Catholic intolerance, Protestant intolerance firmly stood.

The social significance of the two movements was also different. If the humanists addressed the cultural elite of German society, then the reformers, who raised and resolved the most important questions of religion, addressed all Germans.

The main reason for the Reformation was the internal crisis of the Catholic Church itself. The protest against the official church stemmed from the depths of religious feeling. It must be taken into account that religion was of paramount importance in the spiritual life of medieval man, determining his entire worldview, and through it, everyday behavior. That is why any changes in this area had great consequences and influenced literally all aspects of life.

Throughout the late Middle Ages, in European society, which was considered a single “Christian republic,” religious movements spread, whose supporters placed the main emphasis not on the observance of church rituals and formal manifestations of faith, but on the internal, individual communication of a person with God. Real life church, as it seemed to them, came into clear conflict with Christian doctrine. Particular indignation was caused by the discrepancy between the lifestyle of church ministers and what they preached. Their behavior and the policies pursued by Rome ultimately provoked such a sharp reaction that led to a split in the Catholic world. The Reformation movement, therefore, was not anti-religious, but anti-church in nature. It aimed to strengthen the true faith as opposed to the corrupt faith of the Catholic clergy.

Rejection was caused, first of all, by the growing material demands of the Roman Church. All the believers paid tithe - special tax in the amount of 1/10 of all income. There was an open trade in church positions, which intensified at the beginning of the 16th century. in connection with the Italian wars. The ability of the top of the Catholic Church to find more and more new sources of wealth seemed inexhaustible. Throughout Europe there were a huge number of monasteries, which had extensive land holdings and other wealth, with a large population, whose lifestyle gave rise to accusations of idleness.

The most important role in the success of the Reformation was played by the rapid development of printing, which made the Bible more accessible, which created the conditions for the widespread dissemination of new religious ideas.

Germany on the eve of the Reformation

The birthplace of the Reformation was Germany, where all the accumulated by the beginning of the 16th century. the problems were especially acute. Great importance It also had the fact that over the centuries, unique traditions of religious thought had developed in Germany, which distinguished it from the rest of Europe. It was here that a popular movement for “new piety” arose, whose participants tried to independently study the Holy Scriptures. At the same time, preachers appeared in Germany, calling for a simple life in evangelical poverty, they gathered numerous followers around them.

The Catholic Church in Germany occupied an extremely privileged position compared to other countries. She owned almost a third of all German land and controlled a huge number of peasants. The church in Germany, more than any other, depended on Rome. The decline of imperial power gave the popes the opportunity to act practically uncontrollably on the territory of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation.

The most common form of income generation was the saleindulgences - special certificates of “absolution” of sins. In the 16th century the trade in indulgences has become completely shameless. For money, the church was ready to forgive not only past sins, but also future ones, guaranteeing believers impunity and actually encouraging them to live in sin.

Beginning of the Reformation in Germany

The sale of indulgences, begun to finance the construction of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, became especially widespread under Pope Leo X (1513-1521). The man who challenged him was a Saxon monkMartin Luther (1483-1546).

The future reformer was born into the family of a miner, who later became the owner of a small copper smelter. He managed to get a university education, spent several years in a monastery, and then began teaching theology at the University of Wittenberg, located in the domain of the Duke of Saxony. Good knowledge church life and many years of reflection on religious problems led Luther to the idea of ​​​​the need to cleanse the Catholic Church of the vices that caused general indignation. He saw the means to achieve this goal in a return to the ideals of early Christianity, when the only authority for Christians was the text of the Bible in its pristine purity.

October 31 1517 in accordance with the custom of those days, Luther nailed the famous “95 theses " - their objections to the trade in indulgences. This event is considered the beginning of the Reformation.

Translated from Latin to German Luther's theses quickly spread throughout Germany, forcing millions of his compatriots to think about the current situation in their country. The pope's attempt to refute dangerous thoughts only led to the fact that the people's attention was even more focused on Luther.

In 1520, Luther took the next, even more decisive step, publishing an appeal “To the Christian nobility of the German nation on the correction of Christianity” and a number of other writings in which he refuted the main tenets of the Catholic Church and condemned the prevailing morals in it. As proof of the seriousness of his intentions, Luther demonstratively burned the papal bull excommunicating him from the church.

In 1521, Luther was summoned to the Reichstag in Worms, where he appeared before the court of Emperor Charles V. According to legend, in response to the accusations brought against him, the adamant reformer decisively declared: “I stand on this and cannot do otherwise.” The Emperor had no time for Germany at that moment. War with France was brewing, so at almost the most critical moment in the history of Germany, he was in a hurry to leave it to implement his foreign policy plans. Charles V issued an edict condemning Luther, but he hid in time in the possessions of the Duke of Saxony, Frederick the Wise, who was the first of the major German princes to side with the Reformation.

Luther prepared a translation of the Bible into German, which played a colossal role in the history of German culture, giving impetus to the formation of German literary language. Luther's translation formed the basis of the entire system of German education, to which he always attached great importance.

The religious doctrine based on the ideas of Luther was calledLutheranism . Currently, it has tens of millions of followers in many countries around the world (they are also called evangelical Christians, or evangelists).

The main meaning of Lutheranism comes down to the idea of ​​“justification by faith,” which means the rejection of external manifestations of religiosity in favor of the internal experiences of each person. The salvation of the soul was proclaimed to be an individual matter of the believer, not requiring interference from the official church. The Holy Scripture was declared to be the only authority in matters of faith, which did not need any interpretation, much less formal decisions of the church for its confirmation.

Lutheranism asserted the unnecessaryness of a mediator between man and God - and, thus, the unnecessaryness of the church as a special organization. The new teaching implied the renunciation of monasticism and church property. In place of luxurious, richly decorated Catholic churches came a “cheap church”, devoid of unnecessary decorations and magnificent rituals. From Catholicism, only that which did not directly contradict Scripture was preserved: the cross, the altar, the organ. It was also of great importance that, instead of Latin, services were now conducted in the native language of the believer. Religious life was now concentrated in church communities led by preachers - pastors .

Peasants' War

The Reformation gave rise to widespread hopes for the transformation of German society. The belief was spreading throughout the country that the world was on the eve of a revolution prepared by the entire course of history. Never before has Germany experienced such a time of hope, enthusiasm, and faith in rapid renewal.

Hatred of Rome for some time made the Germans forget about the difference in interests, but the wider the circle of social forces involved in the movement became, the more clearly their contradictions and dissimilar goals made themselves felt.

The German knighthood was the first to defend its interests. However, the uprising raised by the knights failed, which led to its weakening as an independent social force and its gradual disappearance from the historical arena.

The broad masses of the people interpreted “Christian freedom” in their own way and demanded a decisive change in the conditions of their lives. The result was " popular reformation " By 1525, all of Germany was engulfed in uprisings calledPeasant War . These events occupied an important place in the history of Germany during the transition to modern times. They were the result of a sharp deterioration in the living conditions of the peasantry, and the Reformation provided an ideological basis for the demands of the peasants.

The most important document of the Peasant War - “12 Articles” - emphasized: “the essence of all peasant articles (as can be clearly seen further) is aimed at understanding this Gospel and living in accordance with it.”

These speeches clearly showed that events began to develop differently than the initiator of the Reformation had expected. Luther condemned the rebels by publishing an appeal “Against the Robbery Peasant Hordes.”

The struggle was extremely fierce; during the suppression of peasant uprisings, about 100 thousand people died.

Princely reformation and results of the Reformation in Germany

After the end of the Peasants' War, the cause of the Reformation was taken into their own hands by the princes, who from now on took a leading position in the events taking place. The period of the Reformation began, which was called"princely" Reformation . The inclusion of ruling princes in the reform movement raised it to a new level.

In the German Empire there were two categories of princes: secular princes and ecclesiastical princes. There were serious contradictions between them. The Reformation opened up opportunities for secular princes to expand their possessions at the expense of the possessions of church princes.

The rapid spread of the Reformation throughout the empire was also facilitated by the struggle for power between the emperor and the princes. The Reformation allowed secular princes to strengthen their position in the Empire by weakening the power of the monarch.

The main content of the “princely” Reformation was the seizure of monastic lands and secularization church property, that is, the conversion of church property (mainly land) into secular property. Charles V did not immediately intervene in the conflict between the princes and the church. All this time he was distracted by the wars in Italy. In 1529, after the signing of the peace in Camora, Charles V finally had the opportunity to take up German affairs. First of all, the emperor prohibited the seizure of monastic and church property and restored the imperial edict of 1521 banning Lutheranism. These decisions caused the famous protest of five princes and 14 imperial cities - supporters of the Reformation. This is where the concepts come fromProtestantism AndProtestant , which became common names for the entire reform movement and its followers.

Charles V's attempt to restore church unity in Germany failed. Circumstances related to foreign policy, forced the emperor to postpone the fight against the Protestants for a long time. Only the peace concluded with France in 1544 freed Charles V’s hands to fight the Protestants. The first religious war in Germany (1546-1547) ended in a decisive victory for the emperor. However, during the second war of 1552, the Protestants entered into an alliance with the king of France and quickly achieved victory.

Meanwhile, Germany was in a state of almost complete chaos. IN 1555 The Reichstag was convened in Augsburg, which was destined to draw a line under the religious wars in Germany. The religious peace concluded in Augsburg was based on the principle: “Whose country is, his faith” (that is, in each principality the ruler had the right to establish the religion he chose). The Empire now recognized two Christian faiths, equally equal before the law - Catholic and Lutheran.

Seeing the collapse of his ideals, Charles V renounced all titles in order to end his life in one of the Spanish monasteries.

Results of the Reformation in Germany

As a result of the Reformation, Germany was completely transformed. From now on, the Empire was split into two unequal parts. Protestantism prevailed mainly in the north. The south of the Empire, including the Habsburg hereditary possessions and Bavaria, remained largely Catholic.

Each prince himself established the faith of his subjects, which further increased the fragmentation of Germany and destroyed any possibility of preventing it from becoming a centralized state along the lines of other European countries.

From Martin Luther’s appeal “To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation for the Correction of Christianity,” June 24, 1520.
“The time of silence has passed, and the time to speak has come.” And “maybe God will still want to help His Church through the laity, since the clergy, to whom this is more appropriate, does not pay attention to anything.” After all, “all Christianity has fallen into terrible decline,” and “the activities of the pope contradict Scripture.” The head of the Christian church “leads such a secular and luxurious lifestyle that no king or emperor can achieve or equal it.” In Rome - “buying, selling, bartering, bartering, vanity, lies, deception, robbery, theft, luxury, fornication, meanness and neglect of God in all forms, so that the Antichrist could not have ruled more vilely.” There, “nobody cares about what is legal and what is illegal, they only think about what brings money and what doesn’t.”
Therefore, “the German nation, bishops and princes must themselves take care of Christianity and the people entrusted to them, in order to govern it and protect its material and spiritual benefits.” The German “Christian nobility must oppose the pope as the universal enemy and destroyer of Christianity.” It should "help the German nation become Christian again and free from the miserable, pagan and unchristian rule of the Pope."
“And He wants much more for this empire to be ruled by a Christian German sovereign.”

REFORMATION IN SWITZERLAND .

The reform movement from Germany spread to other countries. 1518 – beginning of the Swiss Reformation. Luther and Zwingli came to the conclusions about the need for the Reformation independently of each other. The Swiss state (confederation of cantons) has been formed over the centuries. 1291 – 1499 - the struggle of the inhabitants of Switzerland against the Austrian Habsburgs. The cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden formed the core of the future Swiss state, they were joined by the independent state of Geneva and by the beginning of the 16th century. An independent Swiss Confederation emerges. Its final design occurred by the middle of the 17th century. In Switzerland there were both favorable and unfavorable conditions for the reformation. According to their socio-economic development, the Swiss cantons were divided into two groups: forest and urban. In the urban cantons the reformation was received positively, while in the forest cantons it was received hostilely. Forest cantons are a mountainous part of Switzerland, isolated, with remnants of patriarchal relations (peasant community, specific economic development - cattle breeding). Cattle breeding did not require large quantity workers, and an oversupply of labor led to the emergence of the institution of Swiss military mercenaryism. The Reformation was accompanied by secularization, and most of the monasteries were located in the mountains. City cantons: Zurich, Lucerne, Bern, Basel, federal state of Geneva. Merchant capitalism arose early in them, and manufacturing production appeared, located near the passes. The bourgeoisie was interested in the secularization of church lands.

Ulrich Zwingli (1484 - 1531) came from Alpine Switzerland, from the family of a wealthy peasant, received a university education in Vienna and a Bachelor of Arts degree. In 1506 - 1516 he was a parish priest in Glarus, in 1516 - 1518 - a preacher in Einsiedeln. He gave his first sermons in Zurich in 1518. What he has in common with Luther is a moderate burgher reformation: rejection of icons, frescoes, monasticism, celibacy, secularization. However, his ideas were not accepted even in some urban cantons. Luther was a monarchist by conviction, and Zwingli was a republican. Luther did not accept humanists, and Zwingli considered himself a student of Erasmus. Zwinglianism is Christian humanism. Zwingli denied mysticism, did not recognize communion, called for the restoration of guild regulations with their strict regulation of production, and this conservatism of his prevented the pan-European spread of Zwinglianism. An outbreak broke out between the city and forest cantons. Civil War and Zwingli dies in battle.
His successor, Heinrich Bullinger (1504 – 1575) ruled the Reformed Church with great moderation and caution. He wrote the first Helvetic, or second Basel, Confession (1536), agreed in 1549 with Calvin to accept the Zurich agreement, which achieved the union of the French and German Reformed churches, and in 1566 gave in the second Helvetic Confession such a statement of the Reformed teaching , which met with almost universal acceptance. In addition to his numerous works, he published the works of Zwingli in 1543.
Zwinglianism is a specific Swiss reformation that does not go beyond the borders of Switzerland, which is explained by the peculiarities of its situation.

Of all the reformation movements, Calvinism became the most widespread (Holland, France, America). Jean Calvin (Chauvin) (1509 - 1556) - born into the family of a bishop's secretary, received a university education in Orleans, Bourges, and the Sorbonne (Ignatius of Loyola, the first general of the Jesuit Order, also studied there). Due to religious persecution, Calvin ended up in Switzerland. He criticized the teachings of Luther and Zwingli and proposed a short catechism of 21 paragraphs containing the provisions of his new teaching. In 1536, Calvin clearly outlined his teachings in a treatise written in classical Latin, Instructions in the Christian Faith. Subsequently, this treatise was translated into French and other languages ​​and became widespread in Europe. The first thesis is “On absolute predestination”: even before the creation of man, God predetermined the fate of everyone, divided people into God’s chosen ones and victims, and we do not know whether we are chosen ones or victims. All people are equal before God. Another thesis is worldly asceticism - rejection of luxury, the desire to improve one’s life. 1536 - 1538 - Calvin's attempt to reform the church in Geneva, which ended in failure due to opposition from the Anabaptists. Calvin was forced to leave for Strasbourg.

1541 – 1544 – Calvin carried out a reformation of the church in Geneva (extreme asceticism), which actually led to the establishment of a theocracy in Geneva. The Calvinist church consisted of separate communities led by elected people from among the wealthy citizens. Strict supervision was established over the townspeople: everyone was obliged to attend church, go to bed at nine o'clock in the evening, in order to start business early in the morning. Poverty, according to Calvin, was not a sign of holiness. If you are poor, it means that God has turned away from you. Music, dancing, wearing elegant clothes, and storing objects of Catholic worship were prohibited. From time to time, the homes of townspeople were searched. For violations, the perpetrators were punished with a fine, imprisonment or expulsion from the city.

Some scientists opposed Calvin. Miguel Servetus (Spanish scientist, physician, philosopher) criticized Calvin in his treatise “On the Error of the Trinity.” For this he was burned in the central square of Geneva in 1553. Sebastian Castellio, a Swiss humanist, wrote a pamphlet directed against Calvin, “Manifesto on Tolerance, or Mosquito against the Elephant.” All of Castellio's works were destroyed.
Contemporaries called Geneva the “Protestant Rome” and Calvin the “Pope of Geneva.” Voltaire later said that Calvin “opened the doors of the monasteries not in order to drive the monks out of there, but in order to drive the whole world there.”
However, Calvin's ideas fell on fertile ground. Calvinism is a radical burgher reformation. His teaching was anti-feudal and attracted representatives of different social strata. Even some conservative nobles accepted the ideas of Calvinism, since they were directed against the monarchy.

COUNTER-REFORMATION.

The church's response to the Reformation began in the 1940s. XVI century - Counter-Reformation. 1534 - establishment of the Jesuit order by the Spanish hidalgo Ignatius of Loyola (1491 - 1556). The motto of the order is: “Ad majorem Dei gloriam.” Loyola came from a noble family, the youngest son. At first he was in military service, but after being wounded he decided to devote himself to the church. Loyola's main work is the Spiritual Exercises. The Jesuit Order was a secret organization whose purpose was to preserve the purity of the Catholic faith. In 1540, the Pope approved the order.
In the first half of the 16th century. A central inquisitorial tribunal was established, which was responsible for the persecution of Protestants in all countries. In 1559, the “Index of Prohibited Books” appeared (more than 100 publications). Books that were objectionable to the church were burned. The role of censor was performed by the theological faculty of the Sorbonne.
1545 – 1563 - church cathedral in Trident in southern Germany. Among its participants there were many secret and overt Protestants. A group of Jesuits led by the general of the order, D. Laines, actively showed themselves. They proposed the “Dogma of the Infallibility of the Popes,” but this proposal did not pass. In 1869, this dogma was passed at the Vatican Council, but not all Catholics accepted it.
During the Reformation and Counter-Reformation in the 16th century. no one prevailed. The struggle continued in the first half of the 17th century. 1618 -1648 – Thirty Years' War which ended with the signing of the Peace of Westphalia. The Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs (Catholic world) were defeated, which led to the strengthening of the Protestant position.

As a result of the Reformation, the spiritual dictatorship of the Catholic Church was broken, its economic power was undermined by secularization, new Christian denominations arose, secular power was strengthened and national states developed.

Another direction in Protestantism has also become widespread in Europe -Calvinism , the founder of which was the French preacherJohn Calvin (1509-1564)

John Calvin was born in northern France. Already during his years at the university, he acutely felt the onset of a religious crisis. “I saw that the Gospel was suppressed by superstition, that the Word of God was deliberately hidden from the children of the church,” wrote Calvin. Therefore, he, “seeing the disorder of the church, raised the old banner of Jesus Christ.” Persecution of Protestants in France forced him to flee to the Swiss city of Basel, where in 1536 his “Instructions in the Christian Faith” were published. The principles formulated in the book of the French reformer represented the most developed theological system of all created by Protestant thinkers.

Calvin taught that no one knows his purpose in life. Life is given to a person in order to reveal the abilities inherent in him by God, and success in earthly affairs represents a sign of salvation. He proclaimed new moral values ​​- thrift and prudence combined with tireless work, moderation in everyday life, and the spirit of entrepreneurship. In fact, a new attitude towards work was proclaimed: from punishment it turned into higher form human self-expression. Calvin was convinced that the gospel message called for the transformation of not only the church, but also the entire society and the earthly world as a whole.

John Calvin's main activity took place in Geneva, a French-speaking imperial city that, shortly before his arrival there, had joined the Swiss Confederation. The French reformer managed not only to convert the inhabitants of the city, but also to turn Geneva into the Protestant capital of the world. Gradually, Calvin's ideas surpassed Lutheran teaching in their influence on the souls of people. Under his leadership, a new church-political system was established in Geneva, which changed the entire life of the city.

Life in Geneva was completely transformed: a solemn spiritual mood replaced the former noisy social life, splendor in clothes disappeared, masquerades, dances and amusements were prohibited, taverns and theaters were empty, churches, on the contrary, were filled with people. All decorations were removed from churches, and visiting them became mandatory. Violators of the established order were severely punished. This “Geneva State of God” was a self-governing religious community, and Calvin, as its leader, acquired the nickname “Pope of Geneva.”

Outside of Switzerland, Calvinism primarily influenced the reformer's homeland. The followers of Calvin in France were called Huguenots . They took an influential position in French society and largely began to determine the path of its development.

Features of the Reformation in England

England entered the era of the Reformation during the reign of the kingHenry VIII (1509-1547). The English king, who had a theological education, responded to Luther’s speech with a critical pamphlet, for which he received the honorary title “Defender of the Faith” from the Pope.

However, very soon Henry turned into one of the most fierce opponents of the papacy. This was explained by the family affairs of the king, who tried in vain to obtain Rome's consent to dissolve his marriage with Catherine of Aragon. She was the daughter of the “Catholic kings” Ferdinand and Isabella and the aunt of Charles V, so the Pope, who was then heavily dependent on the German emperor, did not dare to agree to a divorce. In the end, Henry got a divorce with the help of the head of the English church, the Archbishop of Canterbury, but since relations with the Roman throne were completely damaged, he decided to use this opportunity to carry out church reforms.

The “Parliament of the Reformation,” which met from 1529 to 1536, adopted a number of laws that completely transformed the English Church and removed it from the rule of Rome. Of utmost importance was Act of Supremacy (supremacy) 1534, declaring the king the head of the English church. The victim of this law was the great English humanist Thomas More, who was executed for refusing to recognize the king’s ecclesiastical powers.

The renovated church was named Anglican . It took an intermediate position between Catholicism and Protestantism. Having freed himself from subordination to Rome and switched from Latin to English language, the Anglican Church has largely preserved Catholic dogma and church structure. First of all, the leading role of bishops in the church organization was preserved.

The most important consequence of the Reformation in England was the spread of literacy. The Bible was translated into English. The English of that time had practically no other books; the Bible was their main reading. During the Reformation, about three thousand monasteries were closed, which owned almost 1/4 of all cultivated land in the country. This was the largest redistribution of property in new history England, which had enormous social consequences. The Reformation thus became one of the most powerful factors in the transformation of English society.

Queen Mary Tudor (1553-1558), a staunch Catholic, attempted to reverse the English Reformation. The ecclesiastical legislation of her father Henry VIII was repealed; Mass executions of Protestants began. The Queen received the nickname Bloody Mary. Her marriage to the Spanish king Philip II was accompanied by England's involvement in the war with France, during which the British lost their last stronghold on the continent - the city of Calais. However, her short reign could not stop the spread of the Reformation in England, as demonstrated by the reign of her sister Elizabeth, a staunch Protestant. In 1559, after the accession of Elizabeth I, Parliament confirmed the supremacy of the crown in church affairs.

Since the Anglican Church retained many elements of Catholicism, a movement arose in England under the influence of Calvinism.Puritans . Their name came from the English word meaning "pure", as the Puritans demanded a complete cleansing of their faith from the Catholic heritage. The followers of this religious trend will be destined to play a huge role both in the fate of their country and in the history of the English colonies in North America.

Jesuit Order and Council of Trent

The most important tool of the Catholic Reformation wasJesuit Order (named after Jesus Christ). Its founder was a nobleman from Spanish Navarre, a participant in the Italian warsIgnatius of Loyola (1491-1556).

The wound received during the defense of Pamplona from the French did not allow Loyola to continue his service, and he turned to reflection on spiritual topics. A pilgrimage to the Holy Land strengthened him in the correctness of his chosen path. In 1534, Loyola and a group of like-minded people founded the Society of Jesus, which aimed to fully protect the Catholic Church from its enemies, and in 1540 Paul III approved the charter of the Society of Jesus. Gradually, another unofficial name, “Jesuit Order,” came into use.

The General of the Order was subordinate only to the Pope, and ordinary members were obliged to obey their general unquestioningly. Iron internal discipline, active social and political activity, missionary work in distant countries allowed the Jesuits to achieve impressive success in a short time. By the end of the 1540s. Jesuit missionaries even reached Brazil and Japan. They paid special attention to the education system, creating educational institutions that were exemplary for that time, where not only good knowledge was given, but also a completely secular education.

The central place in the history of the Catholic Reformation was occupied by the Ecumenical Council, which was held in the Tyrolean city of Trent and met intermittently from 1545 to 1563. The first decisionsCouncil of Trent became decrees recognizing the source of faith not only in the Holy Scriptures, but also in the Holy Tradition, as well as on the interpretation of Scripture. In Trent, a systematized set of regulations was developed for the first time, clearly regulating the religious life of Catholics. The decisions of the Council of Trent marked the beginning of a real revival of Catholicism.

To save its reputation, the renewed church refused to sell indulgences. Special educational institutions - seminaries - began training educated priests. The entire system of education in the spirit of the church was reorganized on the basis of traditional values. Simultaneously with religious reforms, the Papal State, its administration and finances were strengthened. Compared to the Renaissance, the lifestyle of the popes changed dramatically. In 1568, construction was completed on the largest Catholic church in the world - the Roman Cathedral of St. Peter, which became a symbol of the renewed church. In 1582, Pope Gregory XIII reformed the calendar, which we now know as Gregorian .

Results of the Reformation in Europe

The Reformation represented the greatest revolution in the spiritual life of Europeans, which at that time was almost entirely determined by religion. It made a real revolution in the sphere of consciousness, led to a complete revolution in the thoughts, beliefs and religious practices of millions of people.

The main consequence of the Reformation was the return to the authority of Holy Scripture, the direct appeal of believers to Divine revelation without intermediaries in the form of a large church hierarchy. Fundamental changes have occurred in attitudes towards human labor. In contrast to previous views on it as a punishment, worldly professional work received moral justification and acquired a high religious meaning.

According to historians, “the best fruit brought by the Reformation was the improvement and proliferation of schools.”

On development fine arts The Reformation had a generally negative impact. At the same time, it gave impetus to the development of a number of new directions. In painting these were landscapes, still lifes, and depictions of everyday scenes. There are also new architectural forms, new types of artistic crafts.

As a result of the Reformation, a colossal redistribution of property, primarily land, took place, unprecedented in Europe. Entire categories of new owners emerged.

During the era of the Reformation, national churches were created and strengthened in European countries, secular power was strengthened and centralized states of the modern type emerged.

The most important consequence of the Reformation was the split of Europe along religious lines. This predetermined many tragic events in its subsequent history. Religious wars caused by the Reformation took place in many countries, and religious contradictions between them played a major role in the origin of the largest pan-European conflict - the Thirty Years' War.

From the book of Ignatius of Loyola “Spiritual Exercises”
“If the church claims that what seems white to us is black, we must immediately admit it!”
“Although it is highly commendable to serve God out of pure love, yet the fear of the divine majesty must also be earnestly recommended, and not only that fear which we call filial, but also that fear which is called servile.”
“Whoever wants to devote himself to God must give him, in addition to his will, his mind; This is the third and most sublime degree of obedience: one must not only want as the boss wants, one must feel the same way as he does, one must subordinate one’s judgment to him so much that the pious will can conquer the mind.”

Comparison of two directions Initially, Calvinism arose as a cleansing of the church from everything that it did not need according to the Bible. He envisioned more serious reforms of the church. Let's compare Lutheranism and Calvinism. The table that I will now give you will help you consider this issue in more detail. The similarities between Lutheranism and Calvinism lie in the fact that these movements were originally reformist and originated from Protestantism.

Main similarities of currents Lutheranism and Calvinism, in essence, pursued a single goal - church reform. Unlike Martin Luther, John Calvin went much further in his reforms. Among the similarities, one can note the significant rejection of the sacrament of the priesthood, as well as significant steps in the rejection of ritualism, although Calvinism in this regard has a more rigid direction. Historical contradictions, geographical prerequisites and other reasons put quite a lot of pressure on both directions, and therefore the religion itself, be it Calvinism or Lutheranism, has not survived to this day as a single movement and church. Calvinists are split into three camps: Presbyterianism. Congregationalism. Reformism, which originally arose and survives in Europe today as a true movement. The similarities between Lutheranism and Calvinism are limited to this. Differences between the two movements Based on what Lutheranism is, Martin Luther himself could not fully determine the importance and essence of the sacred sacraments and the doctrine of salvation.

As Calvinism developed, it became the result of stricter reforms than Lutheranism. The Church in Switzerland was completely cleared of works of art, monasticism was strictly rejected, while in Lutheranism it for a long time was preserved. In Calvinism, initially the attitude towards mysticism and something unknown was negative. Burning at the stake was practiced. The comparison between Lutheranism and Calvinism today has a different character.

About Lutheranism and Calvinism today Lutheranism today is one of the most liberal religious movements, where there is no monasticism, but there is an ordination of females. The confessional direction of Lutheranism to this day continues to debate its attitude towards this issue, as well as the issue of same-sex marriage, but all disputes with the liberal movement are limited to just conversations. Calvinism today remains a fairly strict religion. True believers do not honor any holidays except Sunday; they pray in simple churches and even on the street. Many people condemn Calvinism for being too simple.

Bibliography

Sources:

1. Martin Luther. Message to the Christian nobility of the German nation. // Reader on the history of the Middle Ages / A. N. Sakharov - 2nd ed. : in 3-t M.: 2001 -T. 2 P. 357

2. Ulrich Zwingli. Commentary on true and false religion. // Reader on the history of the Middle Ages / N. A. Skazkin - 2nd ed. : in 2-t M.: 2000 – T. 1 P. 586

3. John Calvin. Instructions in the Christian Faith. // Reader on the history of the Middle Ages / N. A. Skazkin - 2nd ed. : in 2-t M.: 2000 – T. 1 P. 586

Literature:

1. Barg M.A. "Eras and ideas of the formation of humanism." – M.: Mysl, 1987. – 348 p. In lane: 1 – 60

2. Volobuev P.V. "Choosing Paths social development: theory, history and modernity" - M.: political publishing house 1987 - 312 p. In lane: 1-40

3. Vipper R. Yu. “History of the Middle Ages: a course of lectures” - Kyiv: Air Land 1996- 384c.

4. Gutnova E. V. “History of the Middle Ages: Great Reformers” ed.-2, revised. and additional – M.: graduate School, 2003-496с

5. Drobyshevsky S. A. “History of political and legal doctrines, basic classical ideas” - M.: Yurist, 2003. – 412 p.

6. Siedentop L. “Humanism in Europe” trans. With. English / ed. V. L. Inozemtseva. – M.: Logos, 2001-260s.

7. Isaev I. A. “At the origins of political and legal consciousness” - M.: Yurist, 1998-256 p.

8. History of the Middle Ages: a textbook for history. Fak. State Univer. : in two volumes / ed. E. A. Kosminsky. – M.: politizdat. 1992 – 342 p. 2-vol.

9. History of Political Thought: Early Modern Times. Educational In 2 volumes. / ed. S. P. Karpova. –M.: Higher School, 1990- 235s

10. Magrat Alistair. “Theological thought of the Reformation” - Odessa; OSH 2. “Bogomysle”, 1994 – 316 pp. transl. from English 5 – 7707-5698-5.

Articles.

11. Alekseev A. N. “Results of the Reformation: past and present” // Science and life. 2006. - No. 11 – p. 92 – 103.

12. Alekseev A. N. Mikheeva S. I. “Church Reformation” // Bulletin of RUDN, series 4. Historical sciences. – 2008. - No. 2 p. 5 – 11.

13. Luparev D. L. “Political and legal views of John Calvin” // Law and Politics. – 2008. No. 6 – p. 17 – 19.

14. Luparev D. L. “Political and legal views of Martin Luther” // Law and Politics. – 2008. No. 7 – p. 30 – 35.

15. Luparev D. L. “Political thought of the Reformation” // Law and Politics. – 2008. No. 12 – p. 14 – 19.

16. Marchenko M. P. “European unifying ideas” // Bulletin of Moscow State University, series 11. Law. – 2008.- No. 3 p. 3 - 13.

17. Pozdneeva M. “Reformation and political system” // Voyage. – 2007. - No. 3 - p. 96 - 97.

18. Solokhin. R. Yu. “The doctrine of state and society in Western political and legal thought” // History and Law. – 2008. - No. 7 – p. 17 – 40.

19. Senyavskaya E. S. “Germany and the radical Reformation” // Questions of history. 2006. - No. 11 – p. 58 – 67.

20. Fedyakin A.V. “The Origin of Humanism” // Bulletin of Moscow State University, series 12. Political science. 2008. - No. 3. - With. 21 – 25.

1. Why did European social democracy move away from the original views of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels? 2.What is revisionism? Characterize its views

representatives.

3.What was the role of social democrats in Western European countries in the 1920s?

4.Explain the reasons for the differences in the views and actions of communists and social democrats.

5. Why did Italy and Germany become the birthplace of fascism? What ideology underlay this political movement?

6. Compare the paths of the emergence of fascism in Italy and Germany. What unites them, what distinguishes them?

In the 16th century, Germany was swept by the Reformation - a broad movement for renewal and reform of the Catholic Church. The man who started the Reformation is

Martin Luther. Representatives of all classes took part in it; it was the most important event in the country. And that’s why this topic is still relevant today. The Reformation in Germany is studied in detail by many modern scientists, and they also often write about it documentary. The purpose of my essay is to examine the influence of the Reformation on the country. And the research question is: “How did Martin Luther’s Reformation affect Germany?” I think positive influences there were more than negative ones. Firstly, as a result of the Reformation Catholic Church lost significant power in Germany. This fact was very important in the development of the country, because the church never liked innovation, because... this could have a negative impact on them, and each time they took discoveries and different ideas for heresy. Of course, without innovation there was no development. But after the reforms, the situation changed, more and more new discoveries appeared, which contributed to the rapid development of the country in the 18th century. Secondly, the Reformation had a positive impact on the spiritual interests of the inhabitants of Germany. In the 16th century, many people were dissatisfied with the church for their expensive rituals, greed, enormous wealth and vast land holdings. Therefore, people no longer considered the church to be the “salvation of the soul.” And the ideas of Martin Luther, who argued that man does not need an intermediary between God, opened the door to true faith for them. As a result, a new religious movement emerged - Protestantism. Thirdly, the Reformation left stunning literary monuments, such as “95 Theses”, “Article Letter”, “Twelve Articles”. Most of them are thoughts about religion, recorded in writing. Fourth, most lands of the Catholic Church were secularized. In general, secularization and supremacy over the church were the main reason for the success of Luther’s Reformation, because for the princes it was a huge prize and they had no other choice than to accept the reforms. However, the Reformation brought not only “pros”, but also “cons”. Firstly, a civil war began in 1524, which lasted a year. Its cause was the discontent of the peasants associated with the restriction of their freedoms, the increase in corvee and church tithes. They were ready to recognize only such secular orders that could be justified by the texts of the Bible. Unfortunately, the rebels not only lost, but also made their situation worse. About 100 thousand people died in the war, and most of the victims were peasants. Secondly, during the Reformation war, many historical monuments associated with Catholicism were destroyed: icons, churches, etc. This is a huge loss for German art. During the research, I concluded that, overall, the Reformation had a positive impact. It contributed to the development of Germany, the emergence of Protestantism and remarkable literary monuments, and the expansion of the state's possessions through secularization. But there were also negative influences: civil war, destruction of catalytic monuments.
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Reply posted by: Guest

we live on the bank of the tiger. This is the most beautiful place in Babylon. all the houses here are built from baked bricks or white stone quarried nearby. That morning I was awakened by a pirhum who, even before I was born, came into our house, where he lives as a slave. His father once took silver from my father, but failed to give it back on time. Now Pirkhum is very old and no longer dreams that his debt will be forgiven and he will be returned to school. The way to school lay past the pier where a merchant ship was preparing to sail. it was loaded with copper ingots and logs. Babylonian merchants hoped to sell both at a profit in foreign lands. another ship arrived from afar: porters unloaded bags of grain, which the Babylonians so needed. Staring at the ships, I was almost late for school. I sat down in my usual place next to the girls, counting on their tips. mark errors.

1. Babylon stands on the banks of the Euphrates.

2. There was little fuel in Babylon, so the bricks were not burned, but dried in the sun.

3. There were no mountains in Babylon, which means there could be no construction made of stone.

4. They lent grain.

5. The debtor only had to work for the owner for the debt for 3 years, and then he was released.

6. There were no forests or mountains in Babylon, so copper and logs were not taken away, but brought.

7. Grain and wool were exported from Babylon for sale.

8. Only boys studied in schools.

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The textbook covers the main issues of Russia from ancient times to the beginning of the 16th century. Taking into account modern achievements of domestic and world science, the authors outline the key events of the Russian science.

For the first time in a school textbook, process synchronization is given. Considerable attention is paid to issues of culture and everyday life. the formation of the most important cultural guidelines for civil, ethno-national, social, cultural self-identification of an individual based on the study of the experience of Russia and humanity. fostering respect for the heritage of the peoples of Russia and the world.

This textbook consists of two parts and opens a line of textbooks on Russian literature.

5th edition, revised.

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answer: mammoths are an extinct genus of mammals that lived in the Quaternary period, from the elephant family. The animals reached a height of 5.5 meters and a body weight of 14-15 tons; Thus, mammoths were twice as heavy as the largest modern land mammals - African elephants.

Homo sapiens is a species of the genus people from the hominid family in the order of primates. at the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic, about 40 thousand years ago, its range already covered almost the entire earth.

clan community is a form of social organization where people are connected by collective labor and consumption based on consanguinity. the main form in the primitive communal system. hunting, clearing forests, and farming with primitive tools required great collective effort.

This section will examine the background of the European Reformation. Familiarity with previous movements and thinkers will help to better understand the reasons for the rapid and decisive spread of reformation ideas in the 16th century.

The phenomenon of the Reformation was by no means a spontaneous phenomenon in European religious life. The Catholic Church, which for many centuries had a monopoly in matters of faith, throughout its existence experienced internal pressure from various groups and thinkers who tried to bring new ideas or alternative views into religious life. IN historical science this process was called “pre-reformation”.

These movements were declared heretical by the Catholic Church, and their followers were persecuted, exterminated or significantly limited in their rights depending on the era.

The historian Erokhin writes about the general spiritual atmosphere of that period: “In the 12th century, a number of sects appeared, a characteristic feature of which were high moral ideals. It was supposed to achieve these ideals through the revival of the true ancient apostolic church, opposed to the modern church, Rome.”

The most significant event in the "heretic scene" of that period was the emergence of the Waldensian sect. The founder is considered to be the Italian merchant Peter Waldo (1140 - 1217). It is believed that he was a rich man who gave his money to the poor and began to preach his understanding of the gospel, emphasizing the renunciation of wealth. A circle of associates formed around him. Gradually, a break with the Catholic Church began to take shape. The new community began to arbitrarily perform the sacrament of confession and communion and abandoned churches. Prayers for the dead and the dogma of purgatory were abolished. Such a sharp departure from tradition could not but cause a negative reaction from the Roman Curia, and in 1184 they were excommunicated and began to be persecuted.

However, the Waldensians were unable to spread their teachings and they still exist in the form of compact communities in Italy. But, despite the historical failure of this movement, in a number of points their teaching is directly similar to the ideas of the reformers of the 16th century: they considered Jesus the only mediator between God and man, they denied purgatory, mass, fasting, ritualism, and all human inventions in religion not directly sanctioned by Scripture . The Waldensians understood the sacraments symbolically and retained only baptism and communion.

The Waldenses provided an example of the emergence of reform ideas among the uneducated masses. But there was another process - single philosophers, for one reason or another, revised the usual dogma and put forward new ideas. One of these most famous thinkers was the Englishman John Wycliffe (1320 - 1384).

Wycliffe studied at Oxford University, where he successfully received the title of Doctor of Theology. His confrontation with the Catholic Church did not begin because of doctrinal differences. Wycliffe, as a devoted patriot of his homeland, protested against the abuses of the Roman Curia in England. At the same time, he began to develop his own teaching. The theologian translates Holy Scripture from Latin into English and begins to read his lectures in his native language. In his thoughts, Wycliffe demanded, first of all, reliance on the texts of Scripture, denied the need for church hierarchy, and radically revised the dogma of transubstantiation. Such free ideas caused condemnation in Rome.

In 1378 the Roman Pontiff condemned his teaching. Despite this, he remained at Oxford University for another three years, from where he was irrevocably expelled only in 1381. Despite condemnation from both the royal authorities and the Roman church, his followers continued to spread the ideas of their teacher.

Wycliffe's teachings were brought to the continent in a mass of manuscripts and subsequently influenced the teachings of church reformers. Here is what the American historian Charles Crimens writes: “John Wycliffe, the founder of Lollardism (as Wycliffe’s followers were called, the name itself was of continental origin) anticipated almost all the main doctrines of the Reformation of the 16th century. He opposed the papacy, supported clergy marriage, condemned the principle of monasticism, insisted on the importance of the spiritual side of religion and the insignificance of ceremonies, reduced the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist to a spiritual presence, called on the state authorities to reform the corrupt church and proposed for general use the Bible in English.

The Czech reformer Jan Hus (1369 - 1415) can be considered an ideological student of John Wycliffe. The teachings of Jan Hus caused a widespread religious and socio-political movement in the Czech Republic. Jan Hus studied at the University of Prague - one of the largest educational centers in Europe at that time. At the university, Ian receives a Master of Arts degree and begins teaching. Later, having received the priesthood, he becomes dean of the Faculty of Philosophy.

As a priest, Hus delivered unconventional sermons in which he criticized the depravity of the church, protested against simony and expressed unconventional theological ideas. In particular, one of his most controversial ideas was his understanding of the sacrament of the Eucharist. According to Jan Hus, only the invisible presence of flesh and blood should be allowed in the sacraments, which was in conflict with traditional Catholic dogma, which stated that bread and wine essentially turn into the Body and Blood of Christ.

Jan Hus was not only a reformer, but he also defended the interests of the Czech people in opposition to the strong pro-German influence.

Some of the theses of his teaching were discussed in 1409 at the University of Prague and recognized as heretical. From then on, Hus's conflict with Rome only increased, despite the patronage of the king of the Czech Republic. In 1412, Hus spoke out against indulgences.

The fatal mistake for Huss was his arrival at the Council of Constantia in 1414, which met to overcome the church schism in the Roman church. The Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund, who was an active figure in convening this council, gave him a promise of immunity. However, he did not keep his promise. Jan Hus was condemned as a heretic and was burned on July 6, 1415.

And although Hus never broke with Catholicism and remained faithful to many Catholic dogmas and beliefs, he put forward two Protestant principles that later became the most important: the doctrine of predestination and the recognition of Scripture, and not Tradition, as the highest authority in resolving all disputes.

The execution of Hus outraged society and his followers. Four years after his death, the so-called "Hussite Wars". They continue throughout the Czech Republic until 1438 and lead to the defeat of the extreme Hussites (Taborites) and the reunification of the moderate Hussites (Chashniki) with the Roman Church. The Hussite wars showed what powerful processes national contradictions coupled with religious unrest can lead to.

In parallel with the formation of new sects and the emergence of new heretics, demands to reform the church were heard from the church itself. It was not only the activities of individual heretics that raised the question of church reforms. These processes and paths also existed in church circles in a milder form. B. A. Lapshov writes about this process as follows: “Since throughout the Middle Ages, especially the late, the root of the troubles that befell the Christian world was seen primarily in the corruption of the church, it became the main object of the aspirations of “reformation-renewal” as a return to the origins of the original Christianity. The natural carriers of these ideas were monastic orders.”

Here, first of all, it should be noted the preaching activity of the Dominican monk Girolamo Savonarola (1452 - 1498). He was a fiery fanatic who did not make any compromises with anyone.

Italy at that time was the heyday of the Renaissance, and the young monk was outraged by the pagan spirit that captured all of Italy and especially the higher clergy. In 1490 he arrived in Florence, which became the city of his active work. Savonarola protests against the activities of moneylenders, is indignant at the fact that the women of Florence wear expensive jewelry, and demands strict compliance with all commandments. Girolamo was a fiery preacher, his speech was captivating and attractive. Considering himself to be God's prophet who was called to eradicate the sins of Italy, he was sincere in his strict sermons and people could not help but notice this. In particular, in his sermons, he expressed the idea that Florence would become the head of the “reformation of all Italy.”

His active preaching and political activities (for several years Savonarola de facto ruled Florence) led to the fact that Girolamo became disliked by both the secular authorities and the spiritual rulers. However, the church did not want to immediately lose such an active and sincere preacher, and even the Roman Pontiff himself offered Savonarola the post of cardinal, if only he would moderate his preaching ardor, but Savonarola proudly refused.

Finally, Pope Alexander VI resorted to the drastic remedy of excommunication in 1497. Girolamo did not accept this excommunication and demanded an appeal to the Ecumenical Council. But his position among the people had already been greatly shaken. This made it possible to capture him and publicly execute him the following year, 1498.

Savonarola was a convinced Catholic and did not seek any schism or the founding of his own community. Therefore, its appearance should be considered a very strong signal that the demands of the Reformation are sounding stronger and more radical even in the circles of orthodox Catholics who do not seek to revise established Catholic doctrines.

The activities of M. Luther, D. Wycliffe, J. Hus and Savonarola can also be considered an intra-church process of reformation of church life. But these figures were too radical in their views, which led to their condemnation and persecution. At the same time, the demands for a softer reformation, sounded from the depths of the Catholic hierarchy, did not lead to persecution.

Researcher Erokhin gives the following overview of the intra-church pre-Reformation movement: “Historians identify three movements in the pre-Reformation era, whose representatives spoke about the need for changes and reforms in the church. One movement sought to reform the church organization, believing that the troubles of the church increased due to the autocracy of the popes<...>This is a cathedral movement. The convening of councils should become regular. The Council was to become the highest body of the Catholic Church.

There was another movement that advocated the need for reforms in the dogmatic side of Catholic theology. It involved a more active study of the text of Scripture - this was the so-called biblical movement.

Another current strengthened the mystical components in the teachings of the Catholic Church and sought to gain a new revelation in faith.”

It should be noted here that there was a conciliar movement, which sought to limit the power of the pope through a meeting of councils. It is within this current that the seeds of a future schism appear - German bishops actively object to the autocracy of the Roman vicar. For some time, the theologian and philosopher Nikolai Kuzansky has been participating in the conciliar movement, who is even preparing a project for the unification of the Eastern and Western Churches.

The fact that an understanding of the need for reforms is maturing among the higher clergy is undeniable. For example: speaking at the Lateran Council in 1512, the outstanding Catholic educator Aegidius of Viterber spoke of reform as a necessary process of renewal designed to ensure the viability of the church. Figures such as the German Wessel Hanfort (1420 - 1489) and the Englishman John Colet (1466 - 1519) directly stated the need for urgent church reform.

However, no reforms followed, which led to a powerful ideological explosion, and after active phase Reformation and the Council of Trent (1545 - 1563), assembled as a response to church schism, all these currents disappeared. On the contrary, the supreme power of the pope only increased.

An important prerequisite for the future Reformation was humanism. Defining a person, first of all, as an individual, humanists imperceptibly lay down a new style of thinking - a person is now defined not through the community in which he is located, but only by his deeds or beliefs. In the future, this idea will move into Protestantism, where a person will appear before the eyes of God one on one, without at all needing any obligatory hierarchy (church). But the humanists became famous not only for their theoretical research in the field of philosophy, but also for their very specific work with a diverse textual base of that period.

Italian humanists studied philology and critically studied many manuscripts, including the texts of the Holy Scriptures. Such activities bore fruit. In particular, the humanist Lorenzo Valla (1407 - 1457) proved the falsity of the so-called. "Donation of Constantine", a document according to which Emperor Constantine allegedly granted the pope secular power throughout the entire Western Empire.

Erasmus of Rotterdam (1469 - 1536) can rightfully be considered one of the pillars of humanistic thought of the pre-Reformation period. This versatile man, who gained the favor of both secular rulers and the church elite, in 1516 published the text of the New Testament in Greek, and when comparing it with the Vulgate text, it became clear that numerous errors and distortions that appeared during rewriting were fixed in the Latin text of the Bible. And although in the future Erasmus would not join the Reformation, his intercession helped Martin Luther in the early days of his activity.

Another significant factor that influenced the development of the Reformation was the strengthening of the national consciousness of European peoples. The development of national and patriotic feelings contrasted with the doctrine of the Church as a cosmopolitan, universal association. In this regard, the desire to translate the Holy Scriptures and worship into national languages, which D. Wycliffe and J. Hus had, becomes understandable.

Thus, the main spirit of the time of that period was the impatient anticipation of long-awaited reforms in the Church. Many pinned these hopes on the church councils that were held, but decisive action to reform the Church began only with the beginning of the real Reformation.

V. P. Slobodin draws the following parallels between the era of the pre-Reformation and the main ideas of the Reformation itself: “The main dogmatic provisions of the reformers<…>stemmed from the depths of church consciousness and, to some extent, were the fruit and completion of the moods and ideas of the pre-Reformation period. Indeed, the idea of ​​primacy Ecumenical Councils developed in the process of reformation into the denial of papal power, and then the hierarchy as a whole; the desire for moral purification forced us to turn our attention to the first centuries of Christianity, from where there was only one step to the denial of church tradition, and the condemnation of abuses aimed at enriching the church treasury naturally led to the denial of indulgences, as well as to the denial of the existence of purgatory and the merits of the saints who were dogmatic basis for the sale of indulgences.”

Taking a brief but essential overview of the era preceding the Reformation of the 16th century, we discovered that European culture gradually began to rethink the role of the church in its changing world.

The need for renewal and reformation became increasingly visible and big people, clergy and laity. New relations between people (in particular, the growth of national self-awareness) required their own natural change in the church structure. Initially beginning as the activity of a few sects, like the Waldenses, the pre-Reformation drew educated theologians and high clergy of the church into its mainstream. Further reformation was irreversible, and in this transitional time it depended only on the church whether this reformation would be systematic and gradual or spontaneous and uncontrolled.

1. Why did European social democracy move away from the original views of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels? 2.What is revisionism? Characterize its views

representatives.

3.What was the role of social democrats in Western European countries in the 1920s?

4.Explain the reasons for the differences in the views and actions of communists and social democrats.

5. Why did Italy and Germany become the birthplace of fascism? What ideology underlay this political movement?

6. Compare the paths of the emergence of fascism in Italy and Germany. What unites them, what distinguishes them?

In the 16th century, Germany was swept by the Reformation - a broad movement for renewal and reform of the Catholic Church. The man who started the Reformation is

Martin Luther. Representatives of all classes took part in it; it was the most important event in the country. And that’s why this topic is still relevant today. The Reformation in Germany is studied in detail by many modern scientists, and a documentary film is often made about it. The purpose of my essay is to examine the influence of the Reformation on the country. And the research question is: “How did Martin Luther’s Reformation affect Germany?” I think there were more positive influences than negative ones. First, as a result of the Reformation, the Catholic Church lost significant power in Germany. This fact was very important in the development of the country, because the church never liked innovation, because... this could have a negative impact on them, and each time they took discoveries and different ideas for heresy. Of course, without innovation there was no development. But after the reforms, the situation changed, more and more new discoveries appeared, which contributed to the rapid development of the country in the 18th century. Secondly, the Reformation had a positive impact on the spiritual interests of the inhabitants of Germany. In the 16th century, many people were dissatisfied with the church for their expensive rituals, greed, enormous wealth and vast land holdings. Therefore, people no longer considered the church to be the “salvation of the soul.” And the ideas of Martin Luther, who argued that man does not need an intermediary between God, opened the door to true faith for them. As a result, a new religious movement emerged - Protestantism. Thirdly, the Reformation left stunning literary monuments, such as “95 Theses”, “Article Letter”, “Twelve Articles”. Most of them are thoughts about religion, recorded in writing. Fourth, most lands of the Catholic Church were secularized. In general, secularization and supremacy over the church were the main reason for the success of Luther’s Reformation, because for the princes it was a huge prize and they had no other choice than to accept the reforms. However, the Reformation brought not only “pros”, but also “cons”. Firstly, a civil war began in 1524, which lasted a year. Its cause was the discontent of the peasants associated with the restriction of their freedoms, the increase in corvee and church tithes. They were ready to recognize only such secular orders that could be justified by the texts of the Bible. Unfortunately, the rebels not only lost, but also made their situation worse. About 100 thousand people died in the war, and most of the victims were peasants. Secondly, during the Reformation war, many historical monuments associated with Catholicism were destroyed: icons, churches, etc. This is a huge loss for German art. During the research, I concluded that, overall, the Reformation had a positive impact. It contributed to the development of Germany, the emergence of Protestantism and remarkable literary monuments, and the expansion of the state's possessions through secularization. But there were also negative influences: civil war, destruction of catalytic monuments.
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Background and causes of the Reformation

Any major socio-political event, and this is exactly what the Reformation is, is determined by a whole set of reasons and prerequisites. In order to better understand the phenomenon, the process must carefully consider the situation preceding it. In the 14th - early 16th centuries, Europe experienced a number of serious internal changes? Among them are socio-economic, political, cultural and religious.

Firstly, in the Late Middle Ages a change in the type of production began, the emergence of commercial and industrial production, which replaced natural economy, influenced the social structure of Europe. A class of bourgeoisie appeared, people who, without possessing land holdings, were quickly able to create wealth. This bourgeoisie is not included in social structure medieval Europe in which she lives. It is excluded from the class structure of society, which was associated with the land type of production. Thus, the protest of the bourgeoisie against the class society also turned against the church, which supported this class structure. This protest was expressed against the hierarchical structure of the church, which from the point of view of the bourgeoisie was a repetition of the hierarchical structure of society. It was the bourgeoisie that supported the Reformation with money and weapons.

Secondly, church taxes sometimes constituted a significant burden for the population; this was often superimposed on interethnic contradictions: for example, the Germans believed that the Italians were simply robbing them in the person of the popes. In addition, the high prices for performing church ceremonies could not but cause widespread discontent among the population.

Thirdly, during this period, in many countries there was a process of overcoming feudal fragmentation and the emergence of centralized states. The highest Catholic clergy, led by the pope, claimed to establish their political hegemony, to subjugate all secular life, state institutions and state power. These claims of the Catholic Church caused discontent among monarchs and even among large secular feudal lords.

Once fragmented kingdoms were united into powerful centralized states. Their rulers not only sought to get out of subordination to the Pope, but also, on the contrary, to subordinate such an influential force as the church to their power.

Fourthly, there is an internal church crisis. The church hierarchy is mired in its own contradictions and entangled in the networks of international politics. The papacy entered into an alliance with France and moved to Avignon, which remained its center since 1309. until 1377 At the end of this period the cardinals, whose allegiances were divided between France and Italy, elected one pope in April and another in September 1377. The great European schism in the papacy continued through the reign of several popes. This situation became more complicated as a result of the decision of the Council of Pisa, which, having declared two popes heretics, elected a third. In addition, signs of decline and moral decay of the Catholic Church became noticeable, a clear indication of this was the sale of indulgences. An indulgence was a papal decree that granted a person freedom from punishment for his sins in purgatory. At first, indulgences were given for performing spiritual deeds. So Pope Urban promised their participants crusade 1045 However, by the beginning of the 15th century. indulgences, at least unofficially, became possible to purchase for money, then new violations followed when Pope Sixtus IV allowed indulgences to be purchased for deceased relatives languishing in purgatory. The sale of indulgences was one of the most profitable trades, but it undermined the authority of the church.

Fifthly, the Catholic Church XVI century concentrated huge land property in her hands. The elite of many European states dreamed of expropriating these possessions. It is known that in 1528, the Danish king Christian III, during the Reformation, secularized all church property, as a result of which royal land ownership tripled: the king owned more than half of the lands in the country.

Sixth, the Renaissance significantly changed the worldview of Europeans. The beginning of the Renaissance gave rise to a new vision of man in literature and art. The Renaissance also saw the emergence of many educated people. Against their background, the semi-literacy and fanaticism of many monks and priests became especially noticeable.

To summarize, several main socio-economic, political and cultural reasons can be identified:

1. The crisis of the feudal system and the emergence of capitalist relations

2. Formation of centralized states, strengthening of royal power.

3. Spread of Renaissance ideas.

4. Internal crisis, decline in the moral authority of the Catholic Church.

The beginning of the Reformation, the essence of the movement

Reformation (lat. reformatio - correction, restoration) is a mass religious and socio-political movement in Western and Central Europe of the 16th - early 17th centuries, aimed at reforming Catholic Christianity in accordance with the Bible.

Germany became the birthplace of the Reformation. Its beginning is considered to be the speech of Martin Luther, Doctor of Theology at the University of Wittenberg: on October 31, 1517, he nailed his “95 Theses” to the doors of the Wittenberg Castle Church, in which he spoke out against the existing abuses of the Catholic Church. They argued that the church and the clergy are not intermediaries between God and man, therefore the church cannot absolve sins and sell indulgences. A person’s faith is the only means of communication with God, therefore the church’s claims to a dominant position in worldly life are groundless. Demands for the renewal of the church and the seizure of part of its lands attracted peasants to the banner of Protestantism. The peasants protested not only against the church, but also against the feudal lords. Following Germany, the reform movement spread to other European countries: Switzerland, the Netherlands, France, England, and Italy. The followers of the Reformation received different names - Protestants, Lutherans, Huguenots, Calvinists, Puritans, etc.

In April 1518, Luther sent a respectful message to Pope Leo X, in response to which he was ordered to appear in Rome for repentance.

However, Luther turned to the Saxon Elector Frederick the Wise with a request to allow him to answer the charges without leaving Germany. In October 1518 in Augsburg, Cardinal Cajetan demanded that Luther renounce his views, to which the Augustinian refused, since, like many theologians and priests, he did not find any dogmatic justification for indulgences. In the following months the conflict deepens. In 1519 in Leipzig, Luther opposed the omnipotence of Rome, defending the priority of Holy Scripture over papal power. The answer came in June 1520. The Papal bull "Exsurge Domini" ordered Luther to repent within two months under threat of excommunication. The reformer publicly burned the bull and responded to it with four treatises, which are among his most significant and brilliant works. In his letter “To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation” (August 1520), he rejects the supremacy of the Pope over the Councils, the superiority of priests over the laity, and the exclusive right of the clergy to study the Bible.

Historians consider the end of the Reformation to be the signing of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, as a result of which the religious factor ceased to play a significant role in European politics.

What are the main differences between Protestantism and the orthodox Catholic Church? I saw three main differences:

· Salvation through Faith

· Early Christian community - the ideal of church organization

The ideologists of the Reformation argued that a person does not need the mediation of the church to save his sinful soul. The salvation of a person is achieved not by external religiosity, but by the inner faith of everyone. This position of Protestantism was first clearly formulated by Martin Luther. His famous thesis is called “justification by faith.” This position denied the need for the Catholic Church as it existed in Western Europe. Namely, the special position of the clergy as a mediator between God and people was denied.

Protestants rejected the authority of Holy Tradition, that is, the decisions of church councils. The only source of religious truth, in their opinion, is the Holy Scripture, that is, the Bible. The resolutions of church councils were created by people, and all people are sinners. Therefore, Sacred Tradition cannot be an unconditional authority for believers. All reformation teachings were characterized by an appeal to the early Christian church, to its origins, to its communal organization.

Features of the reform movement in European countries

Features of the reform movement in European countries:

· Reformation in Switzerland

The Reformation found particularly favorable soil in Switzerland and it was here that it took the next step in ideological and organizational relations. Here new systems of Protestantism were developed and new reformation church organizations were created.

The progressive strata of the burghers sought to transform Switzerland into a federation with centralized power, where the leading place would be in the urban cantons. Like the serfs, they were interested in the secularization of monastic lands. The city plebs also suffered from the arbitrariness of the ruling elite and the extortion of the church.

Questions of church reformation were posed differently in Switzerland than in Germany. There was no oppression of the emperor, no princely power, and the Catholic Church was much weaker. But the problems of the relationship between the Swiss cantons, Switzerland and neighboring countries, which sought to bring the mountain passes through which trade flows passed under their control, were acute.

A successful continuation of Lutheran endeavors in Switzerland was the reformation of Ulrich Zwingli and John Calvin. Calvin wrote his main treatise, “Instructions in the Christian Faith,” his dogmas expressed the interests of the most daring part of the then bourgeoisie. Calvinism simplified Christian cult and worship, giving the church a democratic character (election of the leadership of the church by the laity), and separated it from the state. Calvin stands on the same positions as Luther, i.e. from his point of view, earthly life is the path to salvation; in this life, patience is the highest virtue. However, he emphasizes the greater possibility of the Christian's active involvement in earthly affairs. Participation in secular goods is associated with the ownership of property and its increase; only moderate use of wealth is necessary in accordance with God's will.

The basis of Calvinism is the doctrine of Divine predestination. Calvin simplified and strengthened this teaching, bringing it to absolute fatalism: some people, even before birth, are predestined by God to salvation and heavenly bliss, while others are predestined to death and eternal torment, and no human actions or faith can correct this. A person is saved not because he believes, but he believes because he is predestined for salvation. Divine predestination is hidden from people, and therefore every Christian must live his life as if he were predestined for salvation.

· Reformation in France

Adherents of the Protestant Church in France were called Huguenots. Unlike many other European countries, they did not occupy a strictly geographically defined territory; pockets of Protestantism were scattered throughout the country. This determined the particularly fierce, fratricidal nature of the religious wars in France.

The situation with the Reformation in France was in some respects similar to the German one, since although the central government was stronger, nevertheless, some provinces enjoyed the rights of considerable autonomy, especially in the south, so that in the south and French Navarre the Protestant movement was initially strong. Religious issues were mixed with political aspirations. The ruling dynasties, first the Valois and then the Bourbons, sought to strengthen the stability of the country and the throne either through the expulsion of minorities or through toleration. As a result of the Huguenot wars, which lasted several decades, the Edict of Nantes was signed in 1598. They were given freedom of conscience in limited regions of France, but in addition to this - full participation in public life. The edict was only revoked in 1685. This was followed by a mass exodus of Huguenots from France.

· Reformation in the Netherlands.

The appearance of the first Protestants in the Netherlands practically coincides with the preaching of Luther, but Lutheranism did not gain a significant number of supporters in the country. Since 1540, Calvinism began to spread here. The ideas of the Reformation found fertile ground here. They were supported by the majority of the population, especially in large cities - Amsterdam, Antwerp, Leiden, Utrecht, Brussels, etc. So by 1560 the majority of the population were Protestants. To stop the reformation in the Netherlands, Charles 5 issued a very cruel set of prohibitions. Residents were forbidden to read not only the works of Luther, Calvin and other reformers, but even read and discuss... the Bible! Any meetings, destruction or damage to icons or statues of saints, and harboring heretics were prohibited. Violation of any of these prohibitions led to the death penalty.

Despite the repression, Protestantism was firmly established in the Netherlands. During the Reformation, many Calvinists and Anabaptists appeared here. In 1561 The Calvinists of the Netherlands for the first time declared that they supported only those authorities whose actions do not contradict the Holy Scriptures.

· Reformation in England.

Features of the Reformation in England. Unlike Germany, the initiative for the Reformation in England was not taken by the subjects, but by the king himself. Henry VIII, married to Catherine of Aragon, a relative of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, wished to divorce her. But Pope Clement VII did not give his consent to the divorce. The offended English king in 1534 announced that the Church of England was no longer subordinate to the Roman throne. The monasteries were closed, and their property went to the state. The king assumed the right to appoint bishops. The Archbishop of Canterbury became the highest official of the English Church. In 1571, the English Parliament passed the “39 Articles” law, which set out the basic principles of the doctrine of the English Protestant Church. This church was called Anglican, and the principles of its doctrine were called the Anglican Creed. Like Lutheranism, the Church of England accepted the doctrine of salvation by faith, and the Holy Scriptures as the only source of Divine revelation, or truth. Like the Lutherans, the Anglican Church retained two sacraments - baptism and communion. But unlike them, she retained magnificent Catholic worship, as well as the episcopal system.

Reformation in Italy

Unlike most European countries, in Italy the Protestant movement did not find support either among the broad masses or among government officials. Italy, under the strong and lasting influence of the pope, remained devoted to Catholicism.

The ideas of the Anabaptists and Anti-Trinitarians, which became widespread in Italy in the first decades of the 16th century, became attractive to the common people. Reformation actions took on a particularly large scale in Southern Italy, where they had a clearly defined anti-papal and anti-Spanish character. Naples became one of the main centers of the Reformation. The centers of the reform movement arose in Lucca and Florence, Venice and Ferrara, and a number of other cities. The Reformation, although it did not result in a major social movement in Italy, facilitated the victory of the Catholic Church.

· Reformation in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

Reformation ideas penetrated Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in different ways. Cultural and political ties with the Czech Republic opened the way for the influence of the religious-national movement of the Hussites. Studying at universities in Germany introduced young scions of magnate families to new reform trends. Trade relations between German townspeople from the cities of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania connected them with German partners.

Supporters of the separation of the Grand Duchy from Poland and the establishment of its independence believed that Calvinism could provide an ideological justification for this, which neither Catholicism nor Orthodoxy, which expressed the interests of Poland and Moscow, respectively, could do. In the middle of the 16th century. The reformation led to the fact that the gentry, according to contemporaries, was almost entirely Protestant. In any case, sources indicate that in the Novogrudok Voivodeship, for example, out of 600 names of the Orthodox gentry, only 16 remained in their faith.

The first reform community in Belarus was created in Brest by the “uncrowned king of Lithuania” Nikolai Radziwill Cherny. From the middle of the 16th century. such communities began to be created in Nesvizh. Kletsk, Zaslavl, Minsk, Vitebsk, Polotsk and other cities and towns. Churches, schools, and shelter hospitals were organized under them. The communities were led by Protestant priests, who were called “ministers.” In the XVI - first half of the XVII century. 85 Calvinist and 7 Arian communities were created on the territory of Belarus. Important ideological problems of Calvinism were discussed at synods, the participants of which represented either individual districts or all communities of the Grand Duchy. Sometimes synods were held with the participation of Polish Protestants.

The largest Calvinist centers were Berestye, Nesvizh, Vitebsk, Minsk, Slutsk, etc. By the end of the 16th century, the organizational and territorial structure of the Calvinist church in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania had developed. The Reformation intensified the spiritual life of society, contributed to the development of education and culture, and the expansion of international contacts of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with Europe.

However, the broad masses remained deaf to the ideas of the Reformation. This is where it differs from Europe. In addition, heretical ideas of Arian anti-trinitarianism began to spread widely in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Its representatives (for example, Simon Budny) opposed the authorities, preached community of property, etc., which led them to conflict with the Calvinist gentry. At the same time, Rome began the work of the Counter-Reformation. In 1564, Jesuit missionaries arrived in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania - “servants of Christ”, whom Simon Budny called very characteristically - “the devil’s seed”. The fires of the Inquisition did not burn in Belarus, there were no St. Bartholomew's Nights here, but the Jesuits took education into their own hands: they opened 11 colleges in Belarus. Children were taken there regardless of the faith of their parents. After graduating from colleges, they became Catholics. The Jesuits filled the book market with the works of the order’s writers and engaged in charity work...

The efforts of the Jesuits bore fruit: Protestantism began to be supplanted. The process of Catholicization of the layers involved in the Reformation became widespread. By the end of the 17th century. The counter-reformation in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania won.

Thus, in different European countries, although the Reformation had common features, ideas, a common enemy - the Catholic Church, it also had significant differences: the degree of change, the path of implementation ("from above" or "from below) and effectiveness. The Protestant Church spread to Germany, Switzerland, The Netherlands, England. The Catholic Church was able to maintain its influence in Italy, France, Spain. Looking at this list, you can see that the first group of countries - states - significantly ahead of their neighbors in economic development in the modern era. Is this success related to the Protestant Church Or is this a coincidence? The German philosopher and sociologist believed that this connection exists. He outlined his views in the book “The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.”

Protestant work ethic

The Protestant work ethic is a religiously based doctrine about the virtue of work, the need to work conscientiously and diligently.

The term "Protestant work ethic" was coined by the German sociologist and philosopher Max Weber in his famous work "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism" in 1905.

Protestant ethics is an informal system of norms and values ​​of Protestantism that regulate human relations and social behavior and are the basis for social and ethical assessments. Unlike the gospel commandments, the rules of Protestant ethics are not strictly fixed and are not part of the canon. They are contained in the teachings of the ideologists of the Reformation or are derived from them; individual rules are included in specific confessions of faith. The term “Protestant ethic” and its equivalents (“Calvinist morality”, “Puritan work ethic”) are not typical for theological vocabulary - they acquired conceptual rigor mainly in sociological and religious studies. Nevertheless, there is a certain body of moral principles, the real commonality of which in Protestantism is determined by the fact that they express the essential content of reformed Christianity.

M. Weber noted that in Germany (which is populated by both Catholics and Protestants) the Protestants achieved the best economic success; they formed the backbone of entrepreneurs and highly qualified technical specialists. In addition, Protestant countries such as the USA, England and Holland developed most dynamically.

According to M. Weber, the economic rise and development of Euro-American capitalism was explained by the presence of the Protestant ethic, which determined labor zeal and the rational organization of work.

Many sociologists attributed the economic success of Protestant societies to the fact that the work ethic extended not only to the general population, but also to elite groups, including the entrepreneurial class. In these societies, the achievement of material wealth was considered as a criterion of diligence and conscientiousness of work.

According to M. Weber, the conditions for the emergence of capitalism were also present in Ancient Greece, And Ancient Rome, but in ancient society labor was not very prestigious and was considered the lot of slaves. M. Weber distinguished between “modern capitalism” and “traditional capitalism” and emphasized that the Protestant type of behavior was often morally condemned in traditional societies.

A characteristic feature of Protestant societies is the conduct of commerce not only for the sake of increasing personal consumption, but as a virtuous activity. At the same time, M. Weber especially emphasized the asceticism of Protestant entrepreneurs, many of whom were alien to ostentatious luxury and intoxication with power and who viewed wealth only as evidence of a well-fulfilled duty to God.

In contrast to the Protestants, the capitalists of traditional society, on the contrary, sought to minimize their own labor efforts and preferred the simplest types of income, for example, by establishing a monopoly or special relations with the authorities.

M. Weber believes that the Protestant work ethic is not inherent to man by nature and is a product of long-term education. It can be maintained for a long time only when conscientious work brings moral and material returns.

M. Weber's point of view receives some confirmation when analyzing modern Protestant communities in Latin America(where millions of people have converted from Catholicism to Protestantism over the past 20 years). Studies show that people from poorer backgrounds who change their religion improve their standard of living faster than Catholics.

The Protestant ethic sanctified work and condemned idleness, the practical consequence of which in a number of countries was harsh legislation against vagrants. The interpretation of the profession as a response to the demand (call) of God made acquiring a specialty and constant improvement in it a moral duty. Charity for the poor, considered in Catholicism as one of the “good deeds,” was condemned by Protestantism - charity was understood primarily as providing the opportunity to learn a craft and work. Thrift was considered a special virtue - wastefulness or unprofitable investment were sinful. Protestant ethics regulated the entire way of life: its requirements related to industrial and social (law-abiding) discipline and quality of work; she condemned drunkenness and debauchery, demanded that the family be strengthened, children be involved in work and taught to read and understand the Bible; a true Christian was obliged to be tidy in everyday life, neat and diligent in work, and honest in fulfilling obligations. Literacy was pleasing to God, so in some countries that adopted Protestantism as the state religion, laws on compulsory primary education were passed.

In support of the above, we can cite material showing the biblical roots of the Protestant ethic:

· Delay of wages is prohibited - “You shall not offend your neighbor or steal. The wages of a hired hand must not remain with you until the morning” (Bible, Leviticus 19:13).

· Bullying and cruel domination of superiors over subordinates are prohibited - “do not rule over him with cruelty” (Bible, Leviticus 25: 43).

· According to Protestants, the God of the Bible encourages high quality goods and services and honest treatment of customers and prohibits deceitful ways of getting rich - “the acquisition of treasure with a lying tongue is a fleeting breath of those who seek death” (Proverbs 21: 6), “do not do injustice in court, in in measure, in weight and in measurement: let you have true scales, true weights" (Leviticus 19: 35-36),

· Limitation of the working day and working week by prohibiting work on the 7th day of the week, which is called the day of rest. In Hebrew, the word rest sounds like Shabbat, from which the Russian word Saturday comes: “Observe a day of rest, to keep it holy, as the Lord your God commanded you; six days you shall work and do all your works, and the seventh day is rest (Sabbath) To the Lord your God, you shall not do any work in it, neither you, nor your son, nor your daughter, nor your male servant, nor your maidservant, nor your ox, nor your donkey, nor any of your livestock, nor your stranger who you, so that your servant and your handmaid may rest as well as you" (Deuteronomy 5:12-14),

Thus, the theoretical basis of Protestant ethics is the Protestant understanding of man, concretized in the concept of grace, predestination, calling, etc. The principles of morality based on them were noticeably at odds with the usual Christian morality of the Middle Ages. According to Protestantism, the main signs of being chosen for salvation are the strength of faith, productivity and business success. The believer’s desire to prove to himself and others that he is chosen by God has created a strong incentive for entrepreneurship and a basis for new moral norms and criteria. (Appendix No.) Business acumen and wealth have become pleasing to God.

Results and consequences of the Reformation

The results of the reform movement cannot be characterized unambiguously.

On the one hand, the Catholic world, which united all the peoples of Western Europe under the spiritual leadership of the Pope, ceased to exist. The single Catholic Church was replaced by many national churches, which were often dependent on secular rulers. (Appendix No.) As a result, supporters of Lutheranism made up the majority of the population in Northern Germany, Denmark, Scandinavia, and the Baltic states. Protestants predominated in Scotland and the Netherlands, as well as several cantons of Switzerland, although there were also followers of this faith in Hungary, Central Germany and France. The Anglican Church established itself in England.

In addition, the Reformation led to bloody civil-religious wars. Large church communities in the Protestant world were not slow to establish strong ties with the state apparatus. These connections reached the point where the church found itself under the heel of the ruling princes, becoming part of the bureaucratic administration. The example of the Anglican Church, which arose on a royal initiative, is very indicative in this regard; kings and queens are officially the heads of this church.

As a natural result of the merger of church and state, many countries were engulfed in so-called religious wars, in which the struggle for political and economic interests took place under the banner of religion. Known for its sad experiences of the Thirty Years' War, the Swiss wars, civil strife in France, and the peasant war in Germany.

On the other hand, national churches contributed to the growth of the national consciousness of the peoples of Europe. At the same time, the cultural and educational level of the inhabitants of many Western European countries increased significantly - the need to study the Bible led to an increase in both primary educational institutions(mainly in the form of parochial schools) and higher education, which was reflected in the creation of universities to train personnel of national churches. For some languages, writing was specially developed in order to be able to publish the Bible in them.

The most important consequences of this broad socio-political movement include the following:

· The Reformation significantly contributed to the change from old feudal economic relations to new ones - capitalist ones.

The desire for economy, for the development of industry, and for the abandonment of expensive entertainment (as well as expensive religious services) contributed to the accumulation of capital, which was invested in trade and production. As a result, Protestant states began to outstrip Catholic and Orthodox states in economic development. Even the Protestant ethic itself contributed to the development of the economy.

· The Reformation contributed to the development of democracy not only in the Church, but also in the state.

The proclamation of spiritual equality stimulated the development of ideas about political equality. Thus, in countries where the majority were Reformed, the laity were given greater opportunities in governing the church, and citizens - in governing the state.

The Reformation had a huge impact on mass consciousness Europeans, gave Europe a new type of personality and a new system of values.

Protestantism freed people from the pressure of religion in practical life. Religion has become a personal matter. Religious consciousness was replaced by a secular worldview. A person’s personality is given a special role in its individual communication with God. Deprived of the mediation of the church, a person now had to be responsible for his actions, i.e. he had a much greater responsibility.



This section will examine the background of the European Reformation. Familiarity with previous movements and thinkers will help to better understand the reasons for the rapid and decisive spread of reformation ideas in the 16th century.

The phenomenon of the Reformation was by no means a spontaneous phenomenon in European religious life. The Catholic Church, which for many centuries had a monopoly in matters of faith, throughout its existence experienced internal pressure from various groups and thinkers who tried to bring new ideas or alternative views into religious life. In historical science, this process was called “pre-reformation”.

These movements were declared heretical by the Catholic Church, and their followers were persecuted, exterminated or significantly limited in their rights depending on the era.

The historian Erokhin writes about the general spiritual atmosphere of that period: “In the 12th century, a number of sects appeared, a characteristic feature of which were high moral ideals. It was supposed to achieve these ideals through the revival of the true ancient apostolic church, opposed to the modern church, Rome.”

The most significant event in the "heretic scene" of that period was the emergence of the Waldensian sect. The founder is considered to be the Italian merchant Peter Waldo (1140 - 1217). It is believed that he was a rich man who gave his money to the poor and began to preach his understanding of the gospel, emphasizing the renunciation of wealth. A circle of associates formed around him. Gradually, a break with the Catholic Church began to take shape. The new community began to arbitrarily perform the sacrament of confession and communion and abandoned churches. Prayers for the dead and the dogma of purgatory were abolished. Such a sharp departure from tradition could not but cause a negative reaction from the Roman Curia, and in 1184 they were excommunicated and began to be persecuted.

However, the Waldensians were unable to spread their teachings and they still exist in the form of compact communities in Italy. But, despite the historical failure of this movement, in a number of points their teaching is directly similar to the ideas of the reformers of the 16th century: they considered Jesus the only mediator between God and man, they denied purgatory, mass, fasting, ritualism, and all human inventions in religion not directly sanctioned by Scripture . The Waldensians understood the sacraments symbolically and retained only baptism and communion.

The Waldenses provided an example of the emergence of reform ideas among the uneducated masses. But there was another process - single philosophers, for one reason or another, revised the usual dogma and put forward new ideas. One of these most famous thinkers was the Englishman John Wycliffe (1320 - 1384).

Wycliffe studied at Oxford University, where he successfully received the title of Doctor of Theology. His confrontation with the Catholic Church did not begin because of doctrinal differences. Wycliffe, as a devoted patriot of his homeland, protested against the abuses of the Roman Curia in England. At the same time, he began to develop his own teaching. The theologian translates Holy Scripture from Latin into English and begins to read his lectures in his native language. In his thoughts, Wycliffe demanded, first of all, reliance on the texts of Scripture, denied the need for church hierarchy, and radically revised the dogma of transubstantiation. Such free ideas caused condemnation in Rome.

In 1378 the Roman Pontiff condemned his teaching. Despite this, he remained at Oxford University for another three years, from where he was irrevocably expelled only in 1381. Despite condemnation from both the royal authorities and the Roman church, his followers continued to spread the ideas of their teacher.

Wycliffe's teachings were brought to the continent in a mass of manuscripts and subsequently influenced the teachings of church reformers. Here is what the American historian Charles Crimens writes: “John Wycliffe, the founder of Lollardism (as Wycliffe’s followers were called, the name itself was of continental origin) anticipated almost all the main doctrines of the Reformation of the 16th century. He opposed the papacy, supported clergy marriage, condemned the principle of monasticism, insisted on the importance of the spiritual side of religion and the insignificance of ceremonies, reduced the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist to a spiritual presence, called on the state authorities to reform the corrupt church and proposed for general use the Bible in English.

The Czech reformer Jan Hus (1369 - 1415) can be considered an ideological student of John Wycliffe. The teachings of Jan Hus caused a widespread religious and socio-political movement in the Czech Republic. Jan Hus studied at the University of Prague - one of the largest educational centers in Europe at that time. At the university, Ian receives a Master of Arts degree and begins teaching. Later, having received the priesthood, he becomes dean of the Faculty of Philosophy.

As a priest, Hus delivered unconventional sermons in which he criticized the depravity of the church, protested against simony and expressed unconventional theological ideas. In particular, one of his most controversial ideas was his understanding of the sacrament of the Eucharist. According to Jan Hus, only the invisible presence of flesh and blood should be allowed in the sacraments, which was in conflict with traditional Catholic dogma, which stated that bread and wine essentially turn into the Body and Blood of Christ.

Jan Hus was not only a reformer, but he also defended the interests of the Czech people in opposition to the strong pro-German influence.

Some of the theses of his teaching were discussed in 1409 at the University of Prague and recognized as heretical. From then on, Hus's conflict with Rome only increased, despite the patronage of the king of the Czech Republic. In 1412, Hus spoke out against indulgences.

The fatal mistake for Huss was his arrival at the Council of Constantia in 1414, which met to overcome the church schism in the Roman church. The Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund, who was an active figure in convening this council, gave him a promise of immunity. However, he did not keep his promise. Jan Hus was condemned as a heretic and was burned on July 6, 1415.

And although Hus never broke with Catholicism and remained faithful to many Catholic dogmas and beliefs, he put forward two Protestant principles that later became the most important: the doctrine of predestination and the recognition of Scripture, and not Tradition, as the highest authority in resolving all disputes.

The execution of Hus outraged society and his followers. Four years after his death, the so-called "Hussite Wars". They continue throughout the Czech Republic until 1438 and lead to the defeat of the extreme Hussites (Taborites) and the reunification of the moderate Hussites (Chashniki) with the Roman Church. The Hussite wars showed what powerful processes national contradictions coupled with religious unrest can lead to.

In parallel with the formation of new sects and the emergence of new heretics, demands to reform the church were heard from the church itself. It was not only the activities of individual heretics that raised the question of church reforms. These processes and paths also existed in church circles in a milder form. B. A. Lapshov writes about this process as follows: “Since throughout the Middle Ages, especially the late, the root of the troubles that befell the Christian world was seen primarily in the corruption of the church, it became the main object of the aspirations of “reformation-renewal” as a return to the origins of the original Christianity. The natural carriers of these ideas were monastic orders.”

Here, first of all, it should be noted the preaching activity of the Dominican monk Girolamo Savonarola (1452 - 1498). He was a fiery fanatic who did not make any compromises with anyone.

Italy at that time was the heyday of the Renaissance, and the young monk was outraged by the pagan spirit that captured all of Italy and especially the higher clergy. In 1490 he arrived in Florence, which became the city of his active work. Savonarola protests against the activities of moneylenders, is indignant at the fact that the women of Florence wear expensive jewelry, and demands strict compliance with all commandments. Girolamo was a fiery preacher, his speech was captivating and attractive. Considering himself to be God's prophet who was called to eradicate the sins of Italy, he was sincere in his strict sermons and people could not help but notice this. In particular, in his sermons, he expressed the idea that Florence would become the head of the “reformation of all Italy.”

His active preaching and political activities (for several years Savonarola de facto ruled Florence) led to the fact that Girolamo became disliked by both the secular authorities and the spiritual rulers. However, the church did not want to immediately lose such an active and sincere preacher, and even the Roman Pontiff himself offered Savonarola the post of cardinal, if only he would moderate his preaching ardor, but Savonarola proudly refused.

Finally, Pope Alexander VI resorted to the drastic remedy of excommunication in 1497. Girolamo did not accept this excommunication and demanded an appeal to the Ecumenical Council. But his position among the people had already been greatly shaken. This made it possible to capture him and publicly execute him the following year, 1498.

Savonarola was a convinced Catholic and did not seek any schism or the founding of his own community. Therefore, its appearance should be considered a very strong signal that the demands of the Reformation are sounding stronger and more radical even in the circles of orthodox Catholics who do not seek to revise established Catholic doctrines.

The activities of M. Luther, D. Wycliffe, J. Hus and Savonarola can also be considered an intra-church process of reformation of church life. But these figures were too radical in their views, which led to their condemnation and persecution. At the same time, the demands for a softer reformation, sounded from the depths of the Catholic hierarchy, did not lead to persecution.

Researcher Erokhin gives the following overview of the intra-church pre-Reformation movement: “Historians identify three movements in the pre-Reformation era, whose representatives spoke about the need for changes and reforms in the church. One movement sought to reform the church organization, believing that the troubles of the church increased due to the autocracy of the popes<...>This is a cathedral movement. The convening of councils should become regular. The Council was to become the highest body of the Catholic Church.

There was another movement that advocated the need for reforms in the dogmatic side of Catholic theology. It involved a more active study of the text of Scripture - this was the so-called biblical movement.

Another current strengthened the mystical components in the teachings of the Catholic Church and sought to gain a new revelation in faith.”

It should be noted here that there was a conciliar movement, which sought to limit the power of the pope through a meeting of councils. It is within this current that the seeds of a future schism appear - German bishops actively object to the autocracy of the Roman vicar. For some time, the theologian and philosopher Nikolai Kuzansky has been participating in the conciliar movement, who is even preparing a project for the unification of the Eastern and Western Churches.

The fact that an understanding of the need for reforms is maturing among the higher clergy is undeniable. For example: speaking at the Lateran Council in 1512, the outstanding Catholic educator Aegidius of Viterber spoke of reform as a necessary process of renewal designed to ensure the viability of the church. Figures such as the German Wessel Hanfort (1420 - 1489) and the Englishman John Colet (1466 - 1519) directly stated the need for urgent church reform.

However, no reforms followed, which led to a powerful ideological explosion, and after the active phase of the Reformation and the Council of Trent (1545 - 1563), assembled as a response to the church schism, all these movements disappeared. On the contrary, the supreme power of the pope only increased.

An important prerequisite for the future Reformation was humanism. Defining a person, first of all, as an individual, humanists imperceptibly lay down a new style of thinking - a person is now defined not through the community in which he is located, but only by his deeds or beliefs. In the future, this idea will move into Protestantism, where a person will appear before the eyes of God one on one, without at all needing any obligatory hierarchy (church). But the humanists became famous not only for their theoretical research in the field of philosophy, but also for their very specific work with a diverse textual base of that period.

Italian humanists studied philology and critically studied many manuscripts, including the texts of the Holy Scriptures. Such activities bore fruit. In particular, the humanist Lorenzo Valla (1407 - 1457) proved the falsity of the so-called. The “Donation of Constantine,” a document according to which Emperor Constantine allegedly granted the pope temporal power throughout the entire Western Empire.

Erasmus of Rotterdam (1469 - 1536) can rightfully be considered one of the pillars of humanistic thought of the pre-Reformation period. This versatile man, who gained the favor of both secular rulers and the church elite, in 1516 published the text of the New Testament in Greek, and when comparing it with the text of the Vulgate, it became clear that numerous errors and distortions that appeared during rewriting were fixed in the Latin text of the Bible. And although in the future Erasmus would not join the Reformation, his intercession helped Martin Luther in the early days of his activity.

Another significant factor that influenced the development of the Reformation was the strengthening of the national consciousness of European peoples. The development of national and patriotic feelings contrasted with the doctrine of the Church as a cosmopolitan, universal association. In this regard, the desire to translate the Holy Scriptures and worship into national languages, which D. Wycliffe and J. Hus had, becomes understandable.

Thus, the main spirit of the time of that period was the impatient anticipation of long-awaited reforms in the Church. Many pinned these hopes on the church councils that were held, but decisive action to reform the Church began only with the beginning of the real Reformation.

V. P. Slobodin draws the following parallels between the era of the pre-Reformation and the main ideas of the Reformation itself: “The main dogmatic provisions of the reformers stemmed from the depths of church consciousness and, to some extent, were the fruit and completion of the moods and ideas of the pre-Reformation period. In fact, the idea of ​​the primacy of the Ecumenical Councils grew in the process of the Reformation into the denial of papal power, and then of the hierarchy as a whole; the desire for moral purification forced us to turn our attention to the first centuries of Christianity, from where there was only one step to the denial of church tradition, and the condemnation of abuses aimed at enriching the church treasury naturally led to the denial of indulgences, as well as to the denial of the existence of purgatory and the merits of the saints who were dogmatic basis for the sale of indulgences.”

Taking a brief but essential overview of the era preceding the Reformation of the 16th century, we discovered that European culture gradually began to rethink the role of the church in its changing world.

The need for renewal and reformation became visible to more and more people, clergy and laity. New relations between people (in particular, the growth of national self-awareness) required their own natural change in the church structure. Initially beginning as the activity of a few sects, like the Waldenses, the pre-Reformation drew educated theologians and high clergy of the church into its mainstream. Further reformation was irreversible, and in this transitional time it depended only on the church whether this reformation would be systematic and gradual or spontaneous and uncontrolled.

Following the beginning of the era of cultural revival, the Great Geographical Discoveries and intense international rivalry in Europe, a grandiose revolution in the spiritual sphere began, which took the form of the religious Reformation.

Background of the Reformation

The concept of "Reformation" refers to the widespread movement for the renewal of the Catholic Church that unfolded throughout Europe, which ultimately led to the formation of new, so-called "Protestant" churches. The Reformation took place in the midst of the Italian Wars, in which almost all European states were involved, which affected the course and characteristics of the Reformation in different countries.

Renaissance humanism placed the center of attention on man with his earthly, everyday interests, which was manifested even in the behavior of the high priests of the Catholic Church. At the end of the 15th - first half of the 16th century. The Roman throne was occupied one after another by popes distinguished by their desire for luxury, military glory and other matters far from serving God. These “Renaissance popes” were famous for their unscrupulousness and unscrupulousness in their means, not stopping at murder and other crimes to achieve their goals. It is clear that their behavior weakened the authority of the church and increased the desire for its reform.

The main reason for the Reformation was the internal crisis of the Catholic Church itself. The protest against the official church stemmed from the depths of religious feeling. It must be taken into account that religion was of paramount importance in the spiritual life of medieval man, determining his entire worldview, and through it, everyday behavior. That is why any changes in this area had great consequences and influenced literally all aspects of life.

Throughout the late Middle Ages, in European society, which was considered a single “Christian republic,” religious movements spread, whose supporters placed the main emphasis not on the observance of church rituals and formal manifestations of faith, but on the internal, individual communication of a person with God. The real life of the church, as it seemed to them, came into clear conflict with Christian doctrine. Particular indignation was caused by the discrepancy between the lifestyle of church ministers and what they preached. Their behavior and the policies pursued by Rome ultimately provoked such a sharp reaction that led to a split in the Catholic world. The Reformation movement, therefore, was not anti-religious, but anti-church in nature. It aimed to strengthen the true faith as opposed to the corrupt faith of the Catholic clergy.

Rejection was caused, first of all, by the growing material demands of the Roman Church. All believers paid tithe - a special tax in the amount of 1/10 of all income. There was an open trade in church positions, which intensified at the beginning of the 16th century. in connection with the Italian wars. The ability of the top of the Catholic Church to find more and more new sources of wealth seemed inexhaustible. Throughout Europe there were a huge number of monasteries, which had extensive land holdings and other wealth, with a large population, whose lifestyle gave rise to accusations of idleness.

The most important role in the success of the Reformation was played by the rapid development of printing, which made the Bible more accessible, which created the conditions for the widespread dissemination of new religious ideas.

Germany on the eve of the Reformation

The birthplace of the Reformation was Germany, where all the accumulated by the beginning of the 16th century. the problems were especially acute. It was also of great importance that over the centuries, unique traditions of religious thought had developed in Germany, which distinguished it from the rest of Europe. It was here that a popular movement for “new piety” arose, whose participants tried to independently study the Holy Scriptures. At the same time, preachers appeared in Germany, calling for a simple life in evangelical poverty, they gathered numerous followers around them.

The Catholic Church in Germany occupied an extremely privileged position compared to other countries. She owned almost a third of all German land and controlled a huge number of peasants. The church in Germany, more than any other, depended on Rome. The decline of imperial power gave the popes the opportunity to act practically uncontrollably on the territory of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation.

The most common form of generating income was the sale of indulgences - special certificates of “absolution” of sins. In the 16th century the trade in indulgences has become completely shameless. For money, the church was ready to forgive not only past sins, but also future ones, guaranteeing believers impunity and actually encouraging them to live in sin.

Beginning of the Reformation in Germany

The sale of indulgences, begun to finance the construction of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, became especially widespread under Pope Leo X (1513-1521). The man who challenged him was the Saxon monk Martin Luther (1483-1546).

The future reformer was born into the family of a miner, who later became the owner of a small copper smelter. He managed to get a university education, spent several years in a monastery, and then began teaching theology at the University of Wittenberg, located in the domain of the Duke of Saxony. A good knowledge of church life and many years of reflection on religious problems led Luther to the idea of ​​​​the need to cleanse the Catholic Church of the vices that caused general indignation. He saw the means to achieve this goal in a return to the ideals of early Christianity, when the only authority for Christians was the text of the Bible in its pristine purity.

On October 31, 1517, in accordance with the custom accepted at that time, Luther nailed the famous “95 Theses” - his objections to the trade in indulgences - to the door of the church in Wittenberg. This event is considered the beginning of the Reformation.

Luther's theses, translated from Latin into German, quickly spread throughout Germany, forcing millions of his compatriots to think about the situation in their country. The pope's attempt to refute dangerous thoughts only led to the fact that the people's attention was even more focused on Luther.

In 1520, Luther took the next, even more decisive step, publishing an appeal “To the Christian nobility of the German nation on the correction of Christianity” and a number of other writings in which he refuted the main tenets of the Catholic Church and condemned the prevailing morals in it. As proof of the seriousness of his intentions, Luther demonstratively burned the papal bull excommunicating him from the church.

In 1521, Luther was summoned to the Reichstag in Worms, where he appeared before the court of Emperor Charles V. According to legend, in response to the accusations brought against him, the adamant reformer decisively declared: “I stand on this and cannot do otherwise.” The Emperor had no time for Germany at that moment. War with France was brewing, so at almost the most critical moment in the history of Germany, he was in a hurry to leave it to implement his foreign policy plans. Charles V issued an edict condemning Luther, but he hid in time in the possessions of the Duke of Saxony, Frederick the Wise, who was the first of the major German princes to side with the Reformation.

Luther prepared a translation of the Bible into German, which played a colossal role in the history of German culture, giving impetus to the formation of the German literary language. Luther's translation formed the basis of the entire system of German education, to which he always attached great importance.

The religious doctrine based on the ideas of Luther was called Lutheranism. Currently, it has tens of millions of followers in many countries around the world (they are also called evangelical Christians, or evangelists).

The main meaning of Lutheranism comes down to the idea of ​​“justification by faith,” which means the rejection of external manifestations of religiosity in favor of the internal experiences of each person. The salvation of the soul was proclaimed to be an individual matter of the believer, not requiring interference from the official church. The Holy Scripture was declared to be the only authority in matters of faith, which did not need any interpretation, much less formal decisions of the church for its confirmation.

Lutheranism asserted the unnecessaryness of a mediator between man and God - and, thus, the unnecessaryness of the church as a special organization. The new teaching implied the renunciation of monasticism and church property. In place of luxurious, richly decorated Catholic churches came a “cheap church”, devoid of unnecessary decorations and magnificent rituals. From Catholicism, only that which did not directly contradict Scripture was preserved: the cross, the altar, the organ. It was also of great importance that, instead of Latin, services were now conducted in the native language of the believer. Religious life was now concentrated in church communities led by preachers - pastors.

Peasants' War

The Reformation gave rise to widespread hopes for the transformation of German society. The belief was spreading throughout the country that the world was on the eve of a revolution prepared by the entire course of history. Never before has Germany experienced such a time of hope, enthusiasm, and faith in rapid renewal.

Hatred of Rome for some time made the Germans forget about the difference in interests, but the wider the circle of social forces involved in the movement became, the more clearly their contradictions and dissimilar goals made themselves felt.

The German knighthood was the first to defend its interests. However, the uprising raised by the knights failed, which led to its weakening as an independent social force and its gradual disappearance from the historical arena.

The broad masses of the people interpreted “Christian freedom” in their own way and demanded a decisive change in the conditions of their lives. The result was the “popular Reformation.” By 1525, all of Germany was engulfed in uprisings called the Peasants' War. These events occupied an important place in the history of Germany during the transition to modern times. They were the result of a sharp deterioration in the living conditions of the peasantry, and the Reformation provided an ideological basis for the demands of the peasants.

The most important document of the Peasant War - “12 Articles” - emphasized: “the essence of all peasant articles (as can be clearly seen further) is aimed at understanding this Gospel and living in accordance with it.”

These speeches clearly showed that events began to develop differently than the initiator of the Reformation had expected. Luther condemned the rebels by publishing an appeal “Against the Robbery Peasant Hordes.”

The struggle was extremely fierce; during the suppression of peasant uprisings, about 100 thousand people died.

Princely reformation and results of the Reformation in Germany

After the end of the Peasants' War, the cause of the Reformation was taken into their own hands by the princes, who from now on took a leading position in the events taking place. The period of the Reformation began, which was called the “princely” Reformation. The inclusion of ruling princes in the reform movement raised it to a new level.

In the German Empire there were two categories of princes: secular princes and ecclesiastical princes. There were serious contradictions between them. The Reformation opened up opportunities for secular princes to expand their possessions at the expense of the possessions of church princes.

The rapid spread of the Reformation throughout the empire was also facilitated by the struggle for power between the emperor and the princes. The Reformation allowed secular princes to strengthen their position in the Empire by weakening the power of the monarch.

The main content of the “princely” Reformation was the seizure of monastic lands and the secularization of church property, that is, the conversion of church property (mainly land) into secular property. Charles V did not immediately intervene in the conflict between the princes and the church. All this time he was distracted by the wars in Italy. In 1529, after the signing of the peace in Camora, Charles V finally had the opportunity to take up German affairs. First of all, the emperor prohibited the seizure of monastic and church property and restored the imperial edict of 1521 banning Lutheranism. These decisions caused the famous protest of five princes and 14 imperial cities - supporters of the Reformation. This is where the concepts of Protestantism and Protestant come from, which became common names for the entire Reformation movement and its followers.

Charles V's attempt to restore church unity in Germany failed. Circumstances related to foreign policy forced the emperor to postpone the fight against the Protestants for a long time. Only the peace concluded with France in 1544 freed Charles V’s hands to fight the Protestants. The first religious war in Germany (1546-1547) ended in a decisive victory for the emperor. However, during the second war of 1552, the Protestants entered into an alliance with the king of France and quickly achieved victory.

Meanwhile, Germany was in a state of almost complete chaos. In 1555, the Reichstag was convened in Augsburg, which was destined to draw a line under the religious wars in Germany. The religious peace concluded in Augsburg was based on the principle: “Whose country is, his faith” (that is, in each principality the ruler had the right to establish the religion he chose). The Empire now recognized two Christian faiths, equally equal before the law - Catholic and Lutheran.

Seeing the collapse of his ideals, Charles V renounced all titles in order to end his life in one of the Spanish monasteries.

Results of the Reformation in Germany

As a result of the Reformation, Germany was completely transformed. From now on, the Empire was split into two unequal parts. Protestantism prevailed mainly in the north. The south of the Empire, including the Habsburg hereditary possessions and Bavaria, remained largely Catholic.

Each prince himself established the faith of his subjects, which further increased the fragmentation of Germany and destroyed any possibility of preventing it from becoming a centralized state along the lines of other European countries.

From Martin Luther’s appeal “To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation for the Correction of Christianity,” June 24, 1520.

“The time of silence has passed, and the time to speak has come.” And “maybe God will still want to help His Church through the laity, since the clergy, to whom this is more appropriate, does not pay attention to anything.” After all, “all Christianity has fallen into terrible decline,” and “the activities of the pope contradict Scripture.” The head of the Christian church “leads such a secular and luxurious lifestyle that no king or emperor can achieve or equal it.” In Rome - “buying, selling, bartering, bartering, vanity, lies, deception, robbery, theft, luxury, fornication, meanness and neglect of God in all forms, so that the Antichrist could not have ruled more vilely.” There, “nobody cares about what is legal and what is illegal, they only think about what brings money and what doesn’t.”

Therefore, “the German nation, bishops and princes must themselves take care of Christianity and the people entrusted to them, in order to govern it and protect its material and spiritual benefits.” The German “Christian nobility must oppose the pope as the universal enemy and destroyer of Christianity.” It should "help the German nation become Christian again and free from the miserable, pagan and unchristian rule of the Pope."

“And He wants much more for this empire to be ruled by a Christian German sovereign.”

References:
V.V. Noskov, T.P. Andreevskaya / History from the end of the 15th to the end of the 18th century

Throughout the Middle Ages, the church played a significant role in the life of society, fitting perfectly into the feudal system dominant in the West. The church hierarchy was complete reflection secular hierarchy: just as in a secular feudal society different categories of lords and vassals were lined up - from the king (supreme lord) to the knight, so members of the clergy were graded according to feudal degrees from the pope (supreme pontiff) to the parish curate. Being a large feudal lord, the church in various states of Western Europe owned up to 1/3 of all cultivated land, on which it used the labor of serfs, using the same methods and techniques as secular feudal lords. Thus usurping the ready-made forms of feudal society, receiving countless fruits from them, as an organization the church simultaneously formed the ideology of feudal society, setting as its task the substantiation of the law, justice and godliness of this society. The monarchs of Europe, in turn, went to any expense in order to receive the highest sanction for their rule from the clergy.

The feudal Catholic Church, which was the ideological sanction of medieval society, could exist and flourish as long as its material basis, the feudal system, dominated. But already in the 14th-15th centuries, first in Central Italy and Flanders, and from the end of the 15th century throughout Europe, the formation of a new class began, which gradually took control of the economy, and then rushed to political hegemony - the bourgeois class. The new class, claiming dominance, also needed a new ideology. Actually, it was not so new: the bourgeoisie did not intend to abandon Christianity, but what it needed was not the Christianity that served old world; The new religion was supposed to differ from Catholicism primarily in its simplicity and cheapness: the mercantile bourgeoisie needed money not to build majestic cathedrals and hold magnificent church services, but in order to invest it in production, create and increase their growing enterprises. And in accordance with this, the entire expensive organization of the church with its pope, cardinals, bishops, monasteries and church land ownership became not only unnecessary, but also simply harmful. In those states where a strong royal power was formed, meeting the national bourgeoisie halfway (for example, in England or France), the Catholic Church was limited in its claims by special decrees and was thus temporarily saved from destruction. In Germany, for example, where the central power was illusory and the papal curia had the opportunity to rule as if it were its own fiefdom, the Catholic Church with its endless exactions and extortion aroused universal hatred, and the indecent behavior of the high priests multiplied this hatred.

In addition to economic and national oppression, the preconditions for the Reformation were humanism and the changed intellectual environment in Europe. The critical spirit of the Renaissance allowed us to take a fresh look at all cultural phenomena, including religion. The Renaissance's emphasis on individuality and personal responsibility helped to critically reexamine church structure, implementing a kind of revisionism, and the fashion for ancient manuscripts and primary sources alerted people to the discrepancy between early Christianity and the modern church. People with an awakened mind and a worldly outlook became critical of the religious life of their time in the person of the Catholic Church.

The results of the reform movement cannot be characterized unambiguously. On the one hand, the Catholic world, which united all the peoples of Western Europe under the spiritual leadership of the Pope, ceased to exist. The single Catholic Church was replaced by a multitude of national churches, which were often dependent on secular rulers, whereas previously the clergy could appeal to the pope as an arbiter. On the other hand, national churches contributed to the growth of the national consciousness of the peoples of Europe. At the same time, the cultural and educational level of the inhabitants of Northern Europe, which until then was, as it were, the outskirts of the Christian World, significantly increased - the need to study the Bible led to the growth of both primary educational institutions (mainly in the form of parochial schools) and higher educational institutions, which was reflected in the creation of universities to train personnel of national churches. For some languages, writing was specially developed in order to be able to publish the Bible in them.

The proclamation of spiritual equality stimulated the development of ideas about political equality. Thus, in countries where the majority were Reformed, the laity were given greater opportunities in governing the church, and citizens - in governing the state.

The main achievement of the Reformation was that it significantly contributed to the change of old feudal economic relations to new capitalist [approx. 2]. The desire for economy, for the development of industry, and for the abandonment of expensive entertainment (as well as expensive religious services) contributed to the accumulation of capital, which was invested in trade and production. As a result, Protestant states began to outstrip Catholic and Orthodox states in economic development. Even the Protestant ethic itself contributed to the development of the economy.