Stylistic techniques and expressive means of language. Stylist and lexical techniques

Stylistic devices and expressive means - Stylistic devices and means of expression

Epithet (epithet [?ep?θet])- a definition in a word expressing the author’s perception:
silvery laugh silvery laugh
a thrilling tale
a sharp smile
The epithet always has an emotional connotation. It characterizes an object in a certain artistic way and reveals its features.
a wooden table (wooden table) - only a description, expressed in an indication of the material from which the table is made;
a penetrating look (penetrating look) - epithet.

Comparison (simile [?s?m?li]) - a means of likening one object to another according to some characteristic in order to establish similarities or differences between them.
The boy seems to be as clever as his mother. The boy seems to be as smart as his mother.

Irony (irony [?a?r?ni]) - a stylistic device where the content of a statement carries a meaning different from the direct meaning of this statement. the main objective irony is to evoke a humorous attitude in the reader towards the described facts and phenomena.
She turned with the sweet smile of an alligator. She turned around with a sweet alligator smile.
But irony is not always funny; it can be cruel and offensive.
How clever you are! You're so clever! (Implies the opposite meaning - stupid.)

Hyperbole (hyperbole) - exaggeration aimed at enhancing the meaning and emotionality of a statement.
I have told you it a thousand times. I've told you this a thousand times.

Litotes/Understatement (litotes [?la?t??ti?z]/understatement [??nd?(r)?ste?tm?nt]) - understatement of the size or significance of an object. Litotes is the opposite of hyperbole.
a cat-sized horse
Her face isn't a bad one. She has a good face (instead of “good” or “beautiful”).

Periphrase/Paraphrase/Periphrase (periphrasis) - indirect expression of one concept with the help of another, its mention by not direct naming, but description.
The big man upstairs hears your prayers. Big man above hears your prayers (under " big man"implies God).

Euphemism [?ju?f??m?z?m]) - a neutral expressive device used to replace uncultured and rude words in speech with softer ones.
toilet → lavatory/loo toilet → restroom

Oxymoron (oxymoron [??ksi?m??r?n]) - creating a contradiction by combining words that have opposite meanings. The suffering was sweet! The suffering was sweet!

Zeugma (zeugma [?zju??m?]) - omitting repeated words in similar syntactic constructions to achieve a humorous effect.
She lost her bag and mind. She lost her bag and her mind.

Metaphor (metaphor [?met?f??(r)]) - transfer of the name and properties of one object to another based on their similarity.
floods of tears
a storm of indignation
a shadow of a smile
pancake/ball → the sun

Metonymy (metonymy) - renaming; replacing one word with another.
Note: Metonymy must be distinguished from metaphor. Metonymy is based on contiguity, on the association of objects. Metaphor is based on similarity.
Examples of metonymy:
The hall applauded. The hall welcomed us (by “hall” we mean not the room, but the spectators in the hall).
The bucket has spilled. The bucket splashed (not the bucket itself, but the water in it).

Synecdoche (synecdoche) - a special case of metonymy; naming a whole through its part and vice versa.
The buyer chooses the quality products. The buyer selects quality goods (by “buyer” we mean all buyers in general).

Antonomasia (antonomasia [?ant?n??me?z??]) - a type of metonymy. Instead of own name a descriptive expression is given.
The Iron Lady The Iron Lady
Casanova Casanova
Mr. All-Know

Inversion (inversion [?n?v??(r)?(?)n]) - a complete or partial change in the direct order of words in a sentence. Inversion imposes logical tension and creates emotional coloring.
Rude am I in my speech. I am rude in my speech.

Repetition [?rep??t??(?)n]) - an expressive means used by the speaker in a state of emotional tension, stress. Expressed in the repetition of semantic words.
Stop! Don"t tell me! I don"t want to hear this! I don"t want to hear what you"ve come for. Stop it! Do not tell me! I don't want to hear this! I don't want to hear what you came back for.

Anadiplosis (anadiplosis [?æn?d??pl??s?s]) - use of the last words of the previous sentence as initial words next.
I was climbing the tower and the stairs were trembling. And the stairs were trembling under my feet. I climbed the tower, and the steps shook. And the steps shook under my feet.

Epiphora (epiphora [??p?f(?)r?]) - using the same word or group of words at the end of each of several sentences.
Strength is given to me by fate. Luck is given to me by fate. And failures are given by fate. Everything in this world is given by fate. Strength was given to me by fate. Luck was given to me by fate. And failure was given to me by fate. Everything in the world is decided by fate.

Anaphora/Unity of Origin (anaphora [??naf(?)r?]) - repetition of sounds, words or groups of words at the beginning of each speech passage.
What's the hammer? What the chain? Whose hammer was it, whose chains,
In what furnace was your brain? To seal your dreams?
What the anvil? What dread grasp Who took up your swift swing,
Dare its deadly terrors clasp? Got mortal fear?
("The Tiger" by William Blake; Translation by Balmont)

Polysyndeton/Multi-Union (polysyndeton [?p?li:?s?nd?t?n]) - a deliberate increase in the number of conjunctions in a sentence, usually between homogeneous members. This stylistic device emphasizes the significance of each word and enhances the expressiveness of speech.
I will either go to the party or study up or watch TV or sleep. I will either go to a party or study for an exam or watch TV or go to bed.

Antithesis/Contraposition (antithesis [æn?t?θ?s?s]/contraposition) - comparison of images and concepts that are opposite in meaning or opposite emotions, feelings and experiences of the hero or author.
Youth is lovely, age is lonely, youth is fiery, age is frosty. Youth is beautiful, old age is lonely, youth is fiery, old age is frosty.
Important: Antithesis and antithesis are two different concepts, but in English language are denoted by the same word antithesis [æn"t???s?s]. A thesis is a judgment put forward by a person, which he proves in some reasoning, and an antithesis is a judgment opposite to the thesis.

Ellipsis (ellipsis [??l?ps?s]) - deliberate omission of words that do not affect the meaning of the statement.
Some people go to priests; others to poetry; I to my friends. Some people go to priests, others to poetry, I go to friends.

Rhetorical question (rhetoric/rhetorical questions [?ret?r?k/r??t?r?k(?)l ?kwest?(?)nz]) - a question that does not require an answer, since it is already known in advance. A rhetorical question is used to enhance the meaning of a statement, to give it greater significance.
Have you just said something? Did you say something? (Like a question asked by a person who did not hear the words of another. This question is asked not in order to find out whether the person said something at all or not, since this is already known, but in order to find out exactly what he said.

Pun/Wordplay (pun) - jokes and riddles containing puns.
What is the difference between a schoolmaster and an engine-driver?
(One trains the mind and the other minds the train.)
What is the difference between a teacher and a driver?
(One guides our minds, the other knows how to drive a train).

Interjection (interjection [??nt?(r)?d?ek?(?)n]) - a word that serves to express feelings, sensations, mental states, etc., but does not name them.
O! Oh! Ah! ABOUT! Oh! Oh! Oh!
Aha! (Aha!)
Pooh! Ugh! Ugh! ugh!
Gosh! Damn it! Oh shit!
Hush! Quiet! Shh! Tsits!
Fine! Fine!
Yah! Yah?
Gracious Me! Gracious! Fathers!
Christ! Jesus! Jesus Christ! Good gracious! Goodness gracious! Good heavens! Oh my god! (Lord! My God!

Cliché/Stamp (cliche [?kli??e?]) - an expression that has become banal and hackneyed.
Live and learn. Live and learn.

Proverbs and sayings [?pr?v??(r)bz ænd?se???z]) .
A shut mouth catches no flies. Even a fly cannot fly into a closed mouth.

Idiom/Set phrase (idiom [??di?m] / set phrase) - a phrase whose meaning is not determined by the meaning of its constituent words taken individually. Due to the fact that the idiom cannot be translated literally (the meaning is lost), difficulties in translation and understanding often arise. On the other hand, such phraseological units give the language a bright emotional coloring.
No matter
Cloud up Frown

It is difficult to draw a clear line between expressive means of language and stylistic devices of language, although there are still differences between them.

By expressive means of language we will understand such morphological, syntactic and word-formation forms of language that serve to emotionally or logically enhance speech. These forms of language have been worked out by social practice, understood from the point of view of their functional purpose and recorded in grammars and dictionaries.

Their use is gradually being normalized. Rules for using such expressive means of language are developed.

Take for example the following phrase: Never have I seen such a film. In this sentence, the inversion caused by the position of the adverb never in the first place in the sentence is a grammatical norm. (The sentence Never I have seen such a film is grammatically incorrect).

Consequently, of the two synonymous means of expression I have never seen such a film and Never have I seen such a film, the second is a grammatically normalized means of logical selection of a part of a statement.

The selection of expressive means of the English language has not yet been sufficiently carried out, and the analysis of these means is far from complete. There is still a lot of uncertainty here, since selection and analysis criteria have not yet been established.

All expressive means of language (lexical, morphological, syntactic, phonetic) are the object of study of both lexicology, grammar and phonetics, and stylistics. The first three sections of the science of language consider expressive means as facts of language, clarifying their linguistic nature. Stylistics studies expressive means from the point of view of their use in different styles speech, multifunctionality, potential use as a stylistic device.

What should be understood by stylistic device? Before answering this question, we will try to determine the characteristic features of this concept. The stylistic device, first of all, is highlighted and thereby contrasted with the expressive means by conscious literary processing of the linguistic fact. This conscious literary processing of language facts, including those that we called expressive means of language, has its own history. Even A. A. Potebnya wrote: “Starting from the ancient Greeks and Romans and with a few exceptions to our time, the definition of a verbal figure in general (without distinguishing between a trope and a figure) cannot be done without contrasting simple speech, used in its own, natural, original meaning, and decorated, figurative speech.”

Conscious processing of language facts was often understood as a deviation from commonly used norms of linguistic communication. So Ben writes: “A figure of speech is a deviation from the usual way of expressing itself in order to enhance the impression.”

In this regard, it is interesting to quote the following statement by Vandries: “Artistic style is always a reaction against a common language; to a certain extent, it is an argot, a literary argot, which can have various varieties...”

Sainsbury expresses a similar thought: “The true secret of style lies in breaking or neglecting the rules by which phrases, sentences and paragraphs are constructed.”

There is a stylistic device known as maxims. The essence of this technique is to reproduce the characteristic, typical features folk proverb, in particular its structural and semantic characteristics. A statement - a maxim has rhythm, rhyme, and sometimes alliteration; a maxim is figurative and epigrammatic, that is, it expresses some generalized thought in a condensed form.

Let's give another definition of a stylistic device. A stylistic device (stylistic device, stylistic procedure) is a way of organizing a statement/text that enhances its expressiveness. The totality of all stylistic devices constitutes one of the main objects of the science of stylistics. Any linguistic device can become a stylistic device if it is included in the implementation of literary, compositional and aesthetic functions.

Some researchers understand a figure as a stylistic device. Figures are syntagmatically formed means of expression. Figures can be divided into semantic and syntactic. Semantic figures are formed by connecting words, phrases, sentences or larger sections of text. These include comparison, climax, anti-climax, zeugma, pun, antithesis, oxymoron, enallaga. Syntactic figures are formed by a special stylistically significant construction of a phrase, sentence or group of sentences in the text. According to the quantitative composition of syntactic constructions, there are “figures of subtraction” (ellipsis, aposiopesis (default), prosiopesis, apokoina, asyndeton) and “figures of addition” (repetition, anadiplosis, prolepsa, polysyndeton). Based on the location of the components of a syntactic structure, they are distinguished different kinds inversions. Expanding the function of a syntactic structure underlies the rhetorical question, rhetorical exclamation, address. The interaction (likening or dissimilarity) of the structures of syntactic constructions occurring together in the text underlies parallelism, chiasmus, anaphora, epiphora, symplocy.

The intentions necessary for the author are realized through the use of tropes and figures of speech, which help convey the movement of thought and shades of feelings. Techniques also have an aesthetic potential to maintain the interest of listeners and readers, which greatly enhances the effectiveness of speech.

Tropes are figures of speech or words in figurative meaning, preserving expressiveness and imagery.

Many tropes are based on comparison. When comparing, there must be what is being compared (the subject of comparison), what is being compared with (the object of comparison), and the attribute on the basis of which the comparison is made (the term of comparison). A. I. Efimov emphasized the moment of surprise, novelty, and ingenuity as the most important sign of comparison. Masters of words avoid cliched, familiar comparisons (such as like lifeless, like mad, white as snow), and therefore each writer is individual in their selection and use. “When hair is compared to snow on the basis of a common feature - whiteness, then the imagery of speech loses, weakens, because the basis for such a comparison is too well known. But when Gogol likens roads to crayfish (“the roads spread out in all directions, like crayfish when they are poured out of a bag”), then the author’s ingenuity is striking.”

Among the most important tropes are metaphor, metonymy, epithet, comparison, hyperbole, litotes, personification, periphrasis and irony.

Metaphor is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on the similarity of these objects: His "Venus in Furs" -matryoshka movie, in which the original text by Sacher-Masoch - only one of the dolls ( Power. 05/12/2014).

Personification is the transfer of human properties to inanimate objects: Supermarket, whereprices were stinging I preferred a store where prices were 10-20 percent lower(Trud-7. 05/08/2008).

Comparison is a comparison of two phenomena in order to explain one of them with the help of the other: So from the chaos of the Ukrainian conflict,like a whale from the ocean depths, The Fifth International emerges(A. Cohen. Forbes. 05.14.2014).

An epithet is a figurative definition: Washington will have to catchelusive « the right side of history"(D. Oreshkin. Ogonyok. 07/25/2013).

Hyperbole is an expression containing exorbitant exaggeration; it is used in journalism, for example, in feuilleton, for the purpose of satirical emphasis: It seems that Germany is the enemy,much further ! But without special effort has become the most respected European country for us. Here's America - vice versa. It seems like an ally in the anti-Hitler coalition - but such a bad one. Ourdismantles children for parts. Instead of being neighborlydrown in the stream theirgreen pieces of paper - she,rascal, The dollar is strengthening and the economy is strengthening! The enemy, the enemy of pure water (D. Oreshkin. Ogonyok. 07/15/2013)

Litotes is an artistic understatement: Course on the Syrian issue,not moving one iota, designed to demonstrate...(D. Oreshkin. Ogonyok. 07/15/2013).

Allegory (allegory) is the expression of an abstract concept (idea) in a specific artistic image: Zilov nowlamb compared to many people and what is happening around(L. Sukharevskaya. Komsomol. Pravda. 09/15/2003).

Periphrasis is the replacement of the usual one-word standard name of an object, phenomenon, person with a descriptive phrase: white stone capital of Russia(about Moscow), northern Palmyra(about St. Petersburg), Arab spring(about revolutionary events in the countries of the East in 2011-2012), perestroika architect(about the first president of the USSR M. S. Gorbachev).

A paradox is an unexpected conclusion that sharply diverges from the logic of the previous text or from the usual opinion: Live forever and ever and you will finally reach the point where, like a sage, you will have the right to say that you know nothing(K. Prutkov).

Metonymy is the transfer of the name of one phenomenon to another by contiguity: British « The Guardian wrote that behind the “chestnut revolution” in Ukraine there is clearly visibleWashington's hand (Trud-7. 08/12/2010).

Synecdoche is a type of metonymy, the transfer of the name of one phenomenon to another based on a quantitative relationship: But there is an age limit - only up to 24 years old, so your reader should hurry up(Komsom. Pravda. 03/13/2011).

Irony (antiphrase) is the use of a word in the opposite sense to its literal meaning. If irony is based on the transfer of lexical meaning, se can be considered one of the tropes: Fans are overwhelmed with emotions, and a “smart guy” calmly reading next to him can irritate them(Trud-7. 08/25/2010). However, most often the recognition of irony occurs at the level of larger units than the word: in the text in conjunction with the wider context. Thus, an ironic attitude towards the subject of the nomination can be recognized by the addressee only if he has an extralinguistic background (or sufficient background 1 - in the sense in which this term is used in news journalism). In addition, the perception of a situation as ironic also depends on the addressee’s point of view on the event, on his position. For example, the concept sovereign democracy(introduced into circulation in 2005-2006) in the speeches of government officials - this is a positive characteristic of the country’s political independence; journalists use it in an ironic sense: And all the endless talk about that, that we are surrounded by enemies, threatening sovereign democracy, in comparison with this they are not worth a penny(RIA Novosti. 04/06/2006).

There are general linguistic tropes (with “ready-made” imagery) and original author’s ones. General language tropes are used in speech by everyone: hot time(metaphor), tired to death(hyperbola), they pay mere pennies(litotes), the sun has set(personification), eat a plate(metonymy). However, when it comes to giving expressiveness to artistic and journalistic speech, we mean the creation of original tropes. Such paths are unusual for scientific speech. IN colloquial speech General language tropes are more common; the use of original thrones in it depends on the topic of conversation, the communication situation, and the individuality of the speaker.

In the text, trails perform the following functions:

- contribute to the expression of the author’s personal position, reflect his personal view of the world, express his assessments and feelings;
- have an aesthetic impact, contribute to a visual reflection of the dynamics of social life, make speech aesthetically attractive;
- participate in the construction of argumentation;
- contribute to increasing the dialogic tone of speech, since they help the reader to better understand the author and remember what the author conveys.

Figures of speech - special forms of syntactic constructions that enhance the impact of speech on the addressee - are divided into three groups.

Use different semantic relationships between parts constructions include: antithesis, gradation, inversion, ellipsis, parcellation and nominative themes.

Antithesis- this is a turn in which the meanings of words are sharply contrasted: Canada knows how to save Ukraine, but helps her die(AiF. 05/13/2014).

Gradation- this is an arrangement of words or expressions in which each subsequent one contains an increase/decrease in semantic or emotional significance: We've been through a lot, have done a lot... but the tasks of modernizing the state and society are even greater, enormous...(RBC Daily. 04/03/2011).

Inversion- this is an arrangement of words that violates the usual order: But still, now our main rival - Slovaks(Soviet sport. 05/11/2011).

Ellipsis is the omission of some implied word: In the country... people are subject to severe penalties, the principle of “everyone” applies[plant] behind bars."(Ria Novosti. 04/27/2009).

Parcellation- this is a deliberate intonation and punctuation cutting off part of a construction into a syntactically independent segment(s), for example: No law was broken. Is it ethical? And that's not for everyone(Komsom. Pravda. 05/12/2011). Parceled and interrogative sentence: So what do we really want?? We and our government? (New newspaper. 2003).

Nominative themes(nominative presentation, segment) is a construction separated from the statement in the form of a noun in the form of the nominative case (sometimes in combination with a definition), located in front of the main part of the statement and naming the topic of the subsequent phrase. This figure of speech allows you to focus the addressee’s attention on the subject of speech thanks to the logical stress that falls on the word in front: Luke. Few people know, but it first appeared on Cadillac cars in 1938.(Power. 05/12/2014); Prices in May. the horror got better, the horror has become more fun(Kommersant. 05/09/2013).

To figures of speech based on repetition of identical elements, include: repetition of words, repetition of structures (parallelism) and period.

Anaphora- this is the repetition of the same words at the beginning of sentences: Maybe, There really are a lot of problems in Pugachev. Maybe, No work. Maybe, there is corruption. And law enforcement officers do not always do their work in good faith.(Ogonek. 07/15/2013).

Epiphora- this is the repetition of individual words or phrases at the end of sentences: I'd like to know, why am I a titular councilor? Why titular advisor?? (N. Gogol)

Compositional joint- this is the coincidence of the ending of the previous and the beginning of the following sentence: Oh spring without end and without end - without end and without end dream(A. Blok)

Parallelism- this is the identical syntactic construction of neighboring sentences through the repetition in them of the order of similar members of the sentence: Everyone makes mistakes, the wise man admits his mistakes, strong asks for forgiveness,

restores loving relationships(folk wisdom); The country has lost its meaning: all her victories were declared fake, goals - unrealizable, victims - in vain(M. Wehler. Interlocutor.gi. 09/19/2014).

Chiasmus is a cross-shaped change in the order of elements in two parallel rows of words: Learn to love the art in yourself, and not yourself in art(K. S. Stanislavsky). A semantically complicated chiasmus has a high speech-impacting potential, in which double lexical repetition is added in inverted elements and the exchange of syntactic functions of these elements: Most best person That, who lives primarily by his own thoughts and other people's feelings, The worst kind of person is the one who lives by other people's thoughts and his own feelings(L. Tolstoy).

Polysindeton is a stylistic figure consisting of a deliberate increase in the number of conjunctions in a sentence, usually to connect homogeneous members. Slowing down speech with forced pauses, polyunion emphasizes the role of each word, creating unity of enumeration and enhancing the expressiveness of speech: Here, side by side, is Hitler’s German National Socialism, and Falangism in Spain, and British fascism Mosley, and the Vichy monarchism of Maurras, and many other movements(Izvestia. 05/09/2014).

Period- this is a rhythmic and melodic construction, the thought and intonation in which gradually increase, reach the peak, after which the theme receives its resolution - and the intonation tension decreases: But neither, in no other case, no matter how we change our point of view, no matter how you understand that connection, in which there is a person with outside world , or however the period of time may be lengthened or shortened, no matter how clear or incomprehensible the reasons may be for us, we can never imagine complete freedom, pi full necessity(L. Tolstoy).

The combination of different techniques greatly enhances the speech impact: My profession is journalism. My profession - listen. My profession - this is patience. But not my profession - eat sturgeon and drink coffee at someone else's expense, discussing the problem, because of which, right now, at this moment, blood is being shed(Russian reporter. 04/23/2014) - this fragment from the report combines anaphora, parallelism, antithesis and gradation.

To figures of speech based on expression rhetorically addressed™ to the reader/listener include: appeal, question and exclamation.

Rhetorical appeal- this is an appeal designed to express the author’s attitude towards the object being addressed, or to give its characteristics: Thank you, Mr Secretary, from all the freezing Russia(Lit. newspaper. 02.14-20.2001) - here the appeal sounds ironic. Rhetorical appeals are often used in headlines: “ Sergey Ignatiev, speak louder!(Izv. 10.06.03)"; (Izv. 01/28/1998).

A rhetorical question- this is a question that cannot be answered. It is asked in order to attract the addressee’s attention to an important point in the speech: Would you really walk down our roads wearing something like this??! (Komsom. Pravda. 05/04/2011).

Rhetorical exclamation is a stylistic figure that increases the emotional level of speech: Long live labor and the newspaper of the same name! (Trud-7. 02/17/2011) Background (from English, background background, background) - a set of information about an event that gives an idea of the circumstances of what happened.

Mikhalskaya A.K. Fundamentals of rhetoric. Thought and word. M., 1996.

List of the most commonly used stylistic devices:

1. ALLITERATION - repetition in poetic speech (less often in prose) of the same consonant sounds in order to enhance the expressiveness of artistic speech; one of the types of sound recording.

2. ALLUMISION - a hint through a similar-sounding word or mention of a well-known real fact, historical event, literary work.

3. AMPLIFIATION - 1) an oratorical and stylistic technique of pumping epithets, images, synonyms, comparisons, etc. into a phrase to enhance the effect of speech on the reader (listener); 2) the accumulation in a literary work of unnecessary phrases and expressions that are not necessary for this work.

4. AMPHIBOLYNAME - ambiguity of expression that arises as a result of a number of stylistic reasons: 1) structural ambiguity in the construction of a sentence, most often ambiguity, when the subject in the nominative case is difficult to distinguish from the direct object in the accusative case; 2) unsuccessful transfer of part of a phrase from one line to another in violation of the syntactic order of words; 3) an overly complex or confusing syntactic construction of a phrase in the presence of a sharp grammatical inversion and in the absence of precise punctuation.

5. ANACHRONYMOUS - intentional or accidental rearrangement by the author of historical facts in a literary work, mention of a person or object belonging to another era or time.

6. ANTICLIMMAX - one of the types of gradation, the arrangement in poetic (and sometimes in everyday) speech of words or expressions in a descending order in terms of intonation strength and meaning.

7. ANTITHEMZA - a sharp opposition of concepts, positions, images, states, etc. in artistic or oratory speech.

8. ARGOTYMS - words and figures of speech, borrowed from one or another argot, used as a stylistic device (usually to characterize the speech of a character in a work of fiction).

9. ARCHAIMZMS, IMSTORISM - obsolete, obsolete words or old grammatical forms, sometimes used in poetic speech to enhance artistic expressiveness (solemnity, ridicule, irony) or to convey a certain flavor of the era.

10. AFORIZM - a saying that expresses any original thought with extreme brevity in a polished form.

11. VULGARIMS - rude words not accepted in literature or expressions that are incorrect in form, inserted into the text of a work of art to give it a certain everyday flavor or as a deliberate stylistic element that reduces the high tone of the work.

12. GALLICYMZMA - words borrowed from French(coat, coat, frill, swagger), or a figure of speech based on the French model.

13. GERMANIMS - borrowed from German language words (accountant, sandwich, dance master) or figures of speech compiled from German speech patterns.

14. HYPEEMRBOLA - a figurative expression that exaggerates any action, object, phenomenon; used to enhance the artistic impression.

15. GRADUATION - consistent intensification or, conversely, weakening of comparisons, images, epithets, metaphors and other expressive means of artistic speech. There are two types of gradation - climax (ascent) and anti-climax (descent).

16. DESCRНPTIO - one of the types of retardation in a work of art (description of nature, setting, everyday life). Descriptio is a stylistic device that delays the development of the plot, but at the same time is a lateral device for the development of the narrative as a whole. Descriptio is found in all great works of art - novels, stories, poems.

17. ZAMUM (abstruse language) is speech devoid of semantic meaning, in which the relationship between the signifier and the signified either does not exist, or is established arbitrarily and each time anew. It is found in ancient magical texts, folklore (spells, teasers), and in everyday speech (in a purely expressive function). The Russian futurists who proposed the term use an experimental poetic language based on onomatopoeia, arbitrary sound combinations and illogical word transformations.

18. ZEMVGMA - a stylistic device, the construction of a long speech period in such a way that in a sentence with homogeneous subordinate clauses, the predicate in verb form is placed at the beginning of the period, and later it is implied.

19. VILLAGE - a dissonant accumulation of vowels at the junction of two or three words. Gaping is often found in Russian poetry.

20. Allegory - depiction of an abstract idea through a specific, clearly represented image.

21. IROMNIA - subtle ridicule, covered with external politeness; this stylistic device is also called antiphrasis.

22. PUN - a play on words, a turn of phrase, a joke based on a comic play on the sound similarity of dissimilar words or phrases.

23. KATAHREMZA - a combination of words, concepts, expressions that are contradictory, but not contrasting in nature, contrary to their literal meaning.

24. CLIMMAX - one of the types of gradation, the arrangement of words and expressions in a phrase in order of their increasing meaning.

25. RING - a compositional and stylistic device that consists of repeating the initial words or individual sounds at the end of a poetic line (stanza or entire work).

26. CONTAMINATION - 1) interaction of linguistic units that are close in meaning or sound (most often words or phrases), leading to the emergence, not always natural, of new units or to the development of a new meaning in one of the original units; 2) textual technique, combining texts from different editions of one work.

27. LITOmTA - 1) definition of any concept or object by negating the opposite; 2) understatement of the subject, which has another name - reverse hyperbole.

28. LOGOGRIF - 1) a stylistic device for constructing a phrase or verse by selecting such words, the sequential combination of which gives a picture of a gradual decrease in sounds (or letters) of the original long word; 2) a word game, which consists in making other short words from the letters of one long word.

29. MAmKSIMA - a type of aphorism, a type of maxim that is moralistic in content; usually expressed in a stating or didactic form.

30. PARTELLATION (in literature) - an expressive syntactic device of written literary language: a sentence is intonationally divided into independent segments, graphically highlighted as independent sentences

31. PERIPHRAMZ, periphramza - 1) a stylistic device that consists of replacing a word or phrase with a descriptive figure of speech, which indicates the characteristics of an object not directly named; 2) the writer’s use of the form of a well-known literary work, in which, however, sharply opposite content is given, most often satirical, with parallel observance of the syntactic structure and number of stanzas of the original, and sometimes with the preservation of individual lexical constructions.

32. PLEONAMZM - verbosity, unnecessary qualifying words in a phrase.

33. PROVINCIALISM - words and expressions that deviate from the norms that form the basis of the literary language; Usually these are regional words used only in a given area.

34. COMMON WORDS (EXPRESSIONS) - words and expressions that deviate from the norms underlying the literary language; used in everyday speech and everyday communication.

35. PROFESSIONALISM - words and expressions used in speech by representatives of a certain profession.

36. REMINISCENCE - intentional or involuntary reproduction by the poet of a familiar phrasal or figurative structure from another work of art.

37. RETARDATION - a stylistic technique of slowing down the direct plot narration in a literary work by introducing descriptions of nature, appeals to the hero’s past, philosophical reasoning, lyrical digressions, etc.

38. SARKAMZM - caustic mockery, the highest degree of irony, based not only on the enhanced contrast of the implied and the expressed, but also on the immediate deliberate exposure of the implied.

39. SOLECISM - a term of ancient rhetoric, a violation of the morphological or grammatical norms of a literary language without prejudice to the meaning of a given word or expression.

40. STYLIZATION - reproduction of the features of the style of another era, literary movement, writing style of an author or the spoken language of a person belonging to a certain social stratum.

41. TAUTOLOGY - 1) a combination or repetition of the same or similar words (“true truth”, “entirely and completely”, “clearer than clear”); 2) an explicit circle in definition, proof, etc.; 3) a logically true formula (statement), a logical law.

42. EUPHYMIMZM, or euphemism - prudence, a polite expression (sometimes ostensibly polite), softening the direct meaning of a harsh, rude or intimate statement.

Lecture 14

Stylistics deals with the effect of the choice and use of linguistic means in different conditions communication.In every developed literary language More or less definite systems of linguistic expression are observed, differing from each other in the features of the use of national linguistic means. In each of these systems, one group of means can be distinguished, which is the leading, the most noticeable, the most significant. Thus, terminology is a lexical and phraseological feature of scientific prose. However, terminology alone does not provide grounds for separating scientific prose into an independent system. The systematic nature of the use of linguistic means is manifested primarily in the interaction and interdependence of all basic means used in a given text.

The systematic nature of the use of linguistic means leads to the fact that in various spheres of language use the choice of words and the nature of their use, the predominant use of certain syntactic structures, the peculiarities of the use of figurative means of language, the use of various methods of connection between parts of a statement, etc. are normalized. systems are called speech styles or speech styles. Style is a socially conscious and functionally conditioned, internally unified set of methods of use, selection and combination of means of speech communication in the sphere of one or another popular, national language, correlated with other similar methods of expression that serve other purposes, perform other functions in speech social practice of this people.

Language analysis works of art carried out with the division of stylistic means into visual and expressive.

Visual means in this case, all types of figurative use of words, phrases and phonemes are called, uniting all types of figurative names with the general term ohm"paths". Figurative means serve to describe and are primarily lexical. This includes such types of figurative use of words and expressions as metaphor, metonymy, hyperbole, litotes, irony, periphrase And etc.

expressive means, or figures of speech, do not create images, but increase the expressiveness of speech and enhance its emotionality with the help of special syntactic structures: inversion, rhetorical question, parallel constructions, contrast, etc.

On modern stage In the development of stylistics, these terms are preserved, but the level reached by linguistics allows them to be given a new interpretation. Visual means can be characterized as paradigmatic, since they are based on the association of words and expressions chosen by the author with other words close to them in meaning and therefore potentially possible, but not represented in the text, words in relation to which they are given preference.

Expressive means are not paradigmatic, but syntagmatic, since they are based on the linear arrangement of parts and their effect depends precisely on the arrangement.

The division of stylistic means into expressive and figurative is arbitrary, since visual arts, i.e. tropes also perform an expressive function, and expressive syntactic means can participate in the creation of imagery, in the image.

In addition to the division into figurative and expressive means of language, the division into expressive means of language and stylistic devices is quite widespread, with the division of language means into neutral, expressive and stylistic proper, which are called techniques. Under stylistic device understand the intentional and conscious strengthening of any typical structural and/or semantic feature of a linguistic unit (neutral or expressive), reaching generalization and typification and thus becoming a generative model. With this approach, the main differential feature becomes the intentionality or purposefulness of the use of one or another element, as opposed to its existence in the language system.

Some categories of words in a language, especially qualitative adjectives and qualitative adverbs, can, in the process of use, lose their basic, subject-logical meaning and appear only in the emotional meaning of enhancing quality. In such combinations, when restoring the internal form of the word, attention is drawn to the logically mutually exclusive concepts contained in the components of the combination. It was this feature in a typified form that gave rise to a stylistic device called an oxymoron.

Along with linguistic figurative and expressive means, it should also be mentioned thematic stylistic means. The theme is the reflection of a selected area of reality in a literary work. Whether the author is talking about a trip to exotic countries or a walk through an autumn forest, about lush feasts or prisoners in a dungeon, the choice of topic is inextricably linked with the artistic task, and therefore has a stylistic function, is a means of influencing the reader and a reflection of the writer’s worldview. Each literary movement gives preference to a certain set of themes.

IN modern science arose new approach to issues of interpretation of expressive means fiction based on new principles. The detailed classification of the means themselves, developed at previous stages of the development of science, is preserved, but occupies an auxiliary, and not the main position. The main stylistic opposition becomes the opposition between the norm and deviation from the norm or between traditionally denoting And situationally denoting.

Situational replacement of a traditional designation with its rarer equivalent increases expressiveness. Any trope - metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, irony, etc. - is based precisely on the replacement of a traditional designation with a situational designation.

The problem of deviation from the norm is one of the central issues of stylistics. There is an opinion that stylistic effect depends primarily on deviations and that the very essence of the language of poetry lies in the violation of norms.

Others, on the contrary, argue that aesthetic pleasure depends on orderliness and that works devoid of tropes and figures of speech, written according to the principle, can also create an aesthetic effect. autologies, those. the use of words in a poetic text only in their literal meaning, and that the absence of devices is also a kind of device (minus device). Truth lies in the dialectical unity of these two opposites. Deviations from the norm, accumulating, create a new norm with an increment of value and a certain orderliness, and this new norm can be changed again in the future.

Linguists say that in language there are constant and variable quantities. The constant values are those that form the basis of the structure of the language and the strict rules that exist at all its levels. Their violation cannot create additional meanings, it only creates nonsense. For example, the order of morphemes in a word is rigidly fixed, and the prefix cannot be moved from the beginning of the word to its end. In modern English, the place of the article in relation to the noun it defines is also constant: the article necessarily precedes the noun. For the phonetic level, important constants are the set of positions in which certain phonemes may or may not occur.

On the other hand, there are rules that allow for variation, and variation introduces additional meanings. There is, for example, a normal, traditional order of the members of a sentence, which in English is relatively strict; deviations from this order - the so-called inversion - give a significant stylistic effect, highlighting and strengthening certain words. But there is also grammatical inversion ( interrogative form), which does not have expressiveness.

One of the types of inversion has acquired the character of a grammatical norm, conveying the meaning of interrogativeness, but this norm can, in turn, be violated: an expressive question can be asked with direct word order.

Vocabulary provides the greatest opportunities for choice and variation. It is convenient to take here either the dominant of the corresponding synonymous series or the most probable word in this context as the traditional designation. Replacing a neutral and frequent dominant word with one of its rarer synonyms is stylistically relevant.

Deviations from the norm can occur at any level: graphic, phonetic, lexical, morphological, syntactic, at the level of images and plot, etc.

In Russian linguistics the term has already been more or less established transposition, those. the use of words and forms with unusual grammatical meanings and/or with unusual subject reference. Transposition is expressed in a violation of valence connections, which creates additional connotations of evaluativeness, emotionality, expressiveness or stylistic relevance, as well as in the semantic complication of lexical meaning. There is another term for the same phenomenon - grammatical metaphor.

The writer receives greater freedom of choice in the sense of organizing the text outside the sentence: in the sense of the sequence of the text, frame structures, parallel structures, etc. All this falls within the purview of stylistics.

So, the contrast between a traditionally denoting and a situationally denoting is the contrast between the simplest, most frequent, and therefore most likely use of linguistic elements and the one that the writer chose in this message.

Stylistic means are varied and numerous, but they are all based on the same linguistic principle on which the entire mechanism of language is built: comparison of phenomena and establishment of similarities and differences between them, contrast and equivalence.

It is known from information theory that a message, text and speech can be considered as a probabilistic process, the main patterns of which are described by the distribution of probabilities of its elements: graphic, phonetic, lexical, syntactic structures, themes, etc. and their combinations. It is natural to assume that the reader’s perception of the text and its decoding is based on probabilistic forecasting. The reader has at his disposal a certain probabilistic model of language, which gives him an idea of some average norm for a given type of text and allows him to notice deviations from it. Since when deviating from the norm, the process of understanding slows down somewhat, the deviation turns out to be noticeable. Therefore, the reader can actually perceive the stylistic effect as the relationship between the element or combinations of elements that are most common for a given situation, and the deviation from the norm that he can notice in the text.