Associations by similarity. The meaning of association by similarity in medical terms. Condition for the effectiveness of the memorization process
2.8. Nikolai Vyacheslavovich Krushevsky (1851–1887). Language is an approximate “substitute for thought.” Associations of words by similarity and contiguity
N.V. Krushevsky (Nikolai Khabdank) – representative of the Kazan linguistic school. He lived a short but bright life. His few works on linguistics (“On analogy and folk etymology” 1879, “Essay on the science of language” 1883, etc.) had a huge influence on the development of linguistics of the 20th century. Graduate of the University of Warsaw. According to the memoirs of B. de Courtenay, while studying at the university, N. Krushevsky received thorough training in the field of logic, psychology and philosophy. Later, “he developed a taste for linguistics” and wrote a Ph.D. dissertation on the topic “Conspiracy as a type of Russian folk poetry.”
There are numerous memoirs about N. Krushevsky, testifying to his talent and the high significance of his linguistic works. Here are some excerpts from them:
Bogoroditsky V. A.: “N. V. Krushevsky always knew how to emphasize one or another important idea, dwell on it and develop it to its logical consequences. All his works indicate a penchant for generalizations. But these generalizations were not the fruit of fantasy or illusion.”
Bulich S.K.: “K.’s scientific merit lies in the independent development of this (neogrammatical) direction in our country and the familiarization of Russian scientists with its most important results.”
Jacobson R. O.: “Through the Geneva ‘Cours’, the fundamental idea of the ‘Essay’ about two linguistic axes, syntagmatic and, as is now commonly said, paradigmatic, has firmly entered modern international linguistics. This dichotomy, like a number of other ideas of Krushevsky, was also used by Baudouin in his later works..., but it should be noted that Krushevsky’s concept in this regard is incomparably more systematic, consistent and broader than that of Baudouin and Saussure.”
Main works:
Observations on some phonetic phenomena associated with accentuation, 1879;
Linguistic notes, 1880;
On the issue of guna. Research in the field of Old Slavonic vocalism, 1881;
Essay on the Science of Language, 1883;
Sources:
Krushevsky N.V. Selected works on linguistics. Comp. F. M. Berezin. – M., 1998. – 296 p.
Basic philosophical and linguistic views:
1. Comparing languages and establishing their genetic relationship leads to unreliable results.
The axiom according to which everything similar in languages is inherited from the parent language, and everything dissimilar is the result of subsequent development, is false.
It turns out that “sound laws do not have the fatal force” that is attributed to them.
“Language development” as an issue of linguistics is not removed from the agenda, but its solution has a different focus. It is intended to trace the long-term, progressive development of the language - to go from some of its historical state, recorded in written sources, before him current state accessible to our senses.
2. Linguistics moves from analysis dead languages to the analysis of living languages. This direction should be based on the method of deduction.
In accordance with the new interests of linguistics, there is a need for a critical assessment of existing comparative grammar and the goal is to determine ways to analyze languages regardless of their history.
By using deductive method it is supposed to analyze general problems “concerning language in general.” It is necessary to understand the nature of language in general, and not the peculiarities of the general historical past of each language separately. “The subject of linguistics is language, i.e. words and sentences. Its task is to explore the natural process of language development, that is, to reveal the laws according to which it develops from the formal and functional side.
3. From the formal and functional side, words and sentences as substitutes for thought should be studied. The reason for language changes is the relationship of approximate substitutes with indefinite thoughts.
The two basic units of language, the word and the sentence, are defined as " thought substitutes" Substitutes are available directly to our senses. Thoughts hidden behind verbal and sentence substitutes cannot be directly perceived through the senses. The sign function of substitutes is to replace mental concepts. N.V. Krushevsky considers the ability of language to change to be a consequence of the collision of approximate substitutes with vague thoughts or ideas. Approximate substitutes are correlated in the semiotic act with a “group of thoughts” that is not strictly defined in quantitative and qualitative terms. The author suggests talking about their similarity, but not about their identity.
4. A historical worldview, typical of primitive thinking, was fixed in the language.
Modern man is introduced to primitive, initial forms of thinking through language. Primitive thinking, according to the author, is “the primitive contemplation of the people.” Such contemplation cannot be considered illogical and anomalous. Rather, it is inherent in man in general in initial stage its development and is “a completely natural result of the infant mind.” The logical feature of the primitive, infantile worldview is that a person “a very insignificant reason is enough to connect two things”. In this case, the human mind confuses observation with inference, cf. Someone “says he saw a ghost. As a matter of fact, he saw some kind of white figure what was this figure? ghost“This is no longer a fact of observation, but a conclusion.” Thus, the observed phenomenon is perceived by the human mind as an action; two different phenomena are mentally brought closer to each other on the basis of some one sign, often random. Confirmation of this can be found in languages at an earlier, “primitive” stage of their development, when completely different objects are named only “by one of their qualities,” which brings them together, although there is no cause-and-effect relationship between these objects. From false observations, a conclusion is drawn about the analogy of these objects.
N.V. Krushevsky’s statement about the confusion of observation with inference in the human worldview, objectified in the forms of language, is valuable in two respects. Firstly, as follows from the logic of reasoning, the naming of objects in retrospective linguistic terms was carried out on the principle of similarity, analogy, taking into account existing knowledge about the world, i.e. in the perspective of elementary knowledge accumulated by a person, or experience recognized and accepted by a certain linguistic community . The fact that this experience was different among different peoples is proven by the discrepancies in the methods of nomination in a number of languages, even those belonging to the same genetic class. One should not look for comprehensive rational logic or cause-and-effect relationships in the laws of “primitive” analogy, according to which certain classes and types of names were formed, although some elements of rationality are not excluded in principle - it all depends on the degree of truth of knowledge and the time of entry of new names into the language. Secondly, it can be assumed that nomination processes in modern languages also do not obey the scientific logic of thinking and continue to be carried out in accordance with the metaphysical worldview of man as a part of nature. Human intellectual development, as before, is reciprocal in nature - a person starts practically from scratch in his mental and linguistic development. In addition, he becomes familiar with the achievements of civilization throughout his life and assimilates them as something ready-made, already created by previous generations. /In principle, many people repeat and intellectually live someone else’s life/. In exactly the same way a person acquires language, and through it or with its help he learns the world, the scientific nature of which is comprehended by him later or in parallel with assimilation, although it is not obligatory.
5. An image of homogeneous objects is formed in the mind.
The reasoning of N.V. Krushevsky about the reflection of objects of reality in human consciousness is of great epistemological interest. Homogeneous objects, reflected in a person’s mind, leave peculiar imprints and traces in his consciousness. As a result, a general image of these homogeneous objects is formed. General representations receive common names in language, cf. oak, birch, aspen - wood. In exactly the same way, ideas about phenomena are formed, cf.: “If we call a phenomenon a combination of objects or a change, then a series of homogeneous combinations or changes of objects leaves in the mind general impression of a known series of phenomena»].
In fact, N.V. Krushevsky is not talking about “pure” mind, consciousness or thinking, but about reflection processes that are fixed in language in the form of names. Translated into the metalanguage of modern psycholinguistics, we are talking about linguistic consciousness when individual objects are reflected and named; and about verbal thinking when phenomena are reflected and named, i.e. combinations of objects.
6. Representations are related to each other in accordance with the laws of association.
The primitive worldview was formed historically under the influence environment per person or due to a person's observation of his own life, in particular, we can talk about zoomorphism and anthropomorphism of representations.
2) ratio different ideas about the same subject belonging to different time periods (epochs);
3) the relationship between different ideas about different objects. These relationships, or combinations of representations, are a fusion of two or more images into a new (third) image.
Such a fusion of ideas becomes possible thanks to the “general laws of association of ideas in psychology.”
First Law of Association is formulated by the author as follows: “Two ideas that have anything in common, are mutually attracted."
According to second law of association, “representations that are included in a combination or are the essence of representations about the same object, or are themselves in some way similar to each other.”
It is only thanks to the generality and universality of these laws that some peoples have similar combinations of ideas that serve as the basis for equivalent nominations.
7. It is necessary to distinguish between the genetic meaning of a word and the meaning of the word characteristic of it in a certain period of time ( individual meaning).
Nominative feature of a word, for example, a noun firefly N.V. Krushevsky refers to the “genetic meaning of the word” (“something luminous”) and contrasts it with the “individual meaning” (“known insect”).
Words of the language that name combinations of ideas initially associate the entire chain of objects connected in space and time. Over time, these associations are replaced, updated, erased. Their meaning is etymologized. Apparently, this should be attributed, first of all, to phraseological units of language in which the historical meaning is idiomatized.
Some actions and even the activities of people in the sphere of traditions and customs are also etymologized to one degree or another, cf.: “In the era of fist law, a knight entering someone else's castle had to take off his helmet and gloves. This was a necessary precaution on the part of the owner: his guest was already safe without this weapon. In our time, this custom, which once had a reasonable basis, has been preserved in a ceremony devoid of real meaning - to remove the hat from the head and not to present gloved hands when greeting.”
N.V. Krushevsky brings the problem of the etymologization of a word to the problem of the interaction of modern thought and words with the historical picture of the subject assigned to it, more or less conscious modern man. More precisely, in the word, primitive thought is correlated with modern thought. In the word, thus, “two sides of the same fact” collide - the historical picture of the object and the present (modern) representation of the object.
8. People develop the habit of thinking abstractly. The word becomes a silent sign.
Associative impressions attached to a word in the primitive era are erased over time in the human mind due to the frequent use of this word in other speech conditions. However, the point is not that the original meaning of the word is gradually forgotten, but that a person develops the habit of thinking abstractly without referring to the images layered on the word.
If the historical association of the object denoted by the word is etymologized, that is, is no longer perceived, we are dealing with primitive thought as a “silent picture” of the object. If a person who calls a given object with this word abstracts from the impressions associated with this object (“the habit of thinking abstractly”), then we are dealing with modern thought as “ silent sign».
The historical and modern muteness of the word characterizes this word as “ symbol subject." In order for the word, speaking metaphorically and, as it seems to us, in accordance with the author’s logic of presentation, again started talking, for example, in an artistic description of an object (by the way, imaginative thinking encourages this!), it is necessary to use some epithet in conjunction with this word. It seems that in order to revive to life one of the silent associations of the word, that is, a once silent impression; or revive, actualize a potentially hidden idea that accompanies a given word in modern stage its development, it is necessary to give this word artistry and imagery by combining it with an appropriate definition that names some attribute of the object denoted by the word. In such epithets-definitions, the word does not need only special descriptions. Let us confirm the interpretation with the author’s examples, cf. Finland can be represented by a geographer abstractly as the name of a country with a known location in Northern Europe; and by the artist - figuratively using epithets, for example: "harsh, gloomy Finland".
9. The word has magical powers.
Long before the appearance of the theory of speech acts, N.V. Krushevsky described the power of influence of the spoken word on the listening person. The word manifests its power of influence (in modern terminology - illocutionary force) in conspiracies, as peculiar wishes, accompanied or unaccompanied by other ritual actions, with the belief that these wishes will certainly come true. A person uttering the words of a conspiracy seeks to impose his will not only on another person, but also on a deity, objects and circumstances.
Belief in the effectiveness of the human word is explained by N.V. Krushevsky as follows. Primitive man, observing nature and connecting two phenomena with each other, was guided by the fact that one (first) phenomenon, which he elevated to the rank of cause, was always accompanied by another (second) phenomenon, which seemed to be a consequence of the first. An example is the sign that the warm season begins with the appearance of larks.
Accordingly, in the conspiracy, words that replace, “substitute” the named objects were materialized by ancient man. Acting as meta objects, they contributed to the tactility of these objects. The word denoting the object was so close to it that the person “gave the word a material character,” “in the understanding of primitive man, the word was as material as other, truly material objects used in conspiracies.” Therefore, the “spoken” word was perceived as the cause of the phenomenon, namely, as the cause that gives rise to the phenomenon (causa efficiens).
The spoken word, according to belief, could cause the appearance of what is called by this word, cf. “The peasants are afraid to remember the unclean spirit at night.” The power of the spoken word in the same conspiracies is based either on the authority of the deity to whom they turn for help, or on the authority of the conjuring healer.
Thus, the magical power of a word lies in the faith of the listener in the materializing effect of this word and in the authority of the author or pronouncement of this word. The problem of the influence of a word through its semiotic relationship, it seems, is still awaiting its solution. The problem of the influence of a thinking and speaking subject on the recipient through words began to be actively discussed almost a century later in pragmalinguistics, parapsychology and neurolinguistics (cf. neurolinguistic programming).
10. The functioning of language is based on verbal associations by similarity and contiguity.
In the history of linguistics, it is noted that N.V. Krushevsky, in his “Essays on the Science of Language,” determined the nature of interword relations that are built on associations by similarity and contiguity. These relations were later named by F. de Saussure, paradigmatic and syntagmatic.
Leaving the question of primacy, let us first pay attention to the interpretation of associative relations by the author himself, cf.: “All people with normal mental abilities learn to speak a language quite quickly and quite easily. This can only be explained by the fact that we neither remember nor recall each word separately, by itself.” “Every word is connected with other words by bonds associations by similarity; this similarity will be not only external, i.e. sound or structural, morphological, but also internal, semasiological. Or in other words: every word is capable, due to a special mental law, of arousing in our spirit other words with which it is similar, and being aroused by these words.”
The easiest way to sum up what has been said is to declare that we are talking here about paradigmatic relations. It must be admitted that under paradigmatic relations in Lately increasingly, only vertical interword associative connections are understood according to the semantic, or “semasiological” criterion, cf. thematically related words, synonyms, antonyms. The fact that these may be words that have similar architectonics, i.e. phonetic, morphological and word-formation similarities in paradigm, often remains without due attention, since this seems to have been a long time ago known fact, the essence of which was defined by G. Paul as the “principle of linguistic analogy”, according to which language is organized and developed.
Here it should only be noted that the principle of associativity is used by N.V. Krushevsky more widely and not only to interpret interword relations of a vertical order, but also, as we will see later, to determine the essence of linear, syntagmatic relations.
The completeness of N.V. Krushevsky’s understanding of associative paradigmatic relations is so linguistically productive and heuristic that it encourages the linguist reader to reconsider his views on the sign essence of linguistic units. And I want to carry out this revision not in the direction of the semasiological potentials of linguistic units, but in relation to their paradigmatic organization.
Without claiming originality, this can be formulated as follows: a word is not only a sign of an extralinguistic relationship, that is, a sign of a mental concept and the object or phenomenon of objective reality behind it; the word is also a sign of the linguistic system. The systemic significance of a word is manifested in its belonging to various linguistic categories. The word as a sign of the system includes its phonetic ones; acoustic features, plus or minus motivated by nomination and semantics; morphemic (morphological, grammatical and word-formative), and in a narrow sense syntactic features, as well as semantic features that constitute the main lexical meaning. /The fact that the main meaning of a word is intralinguistic, and not extralinguistic in nature, is not yet realized by all lexicologists due to the methodological weakness and conceptual disunity of linguistics in general/.
Character linear interword relations N.V. Krushevsky convincingly demonstrates with the following explanation: “It is not difficult to discover other connections between words. So eg. the words: “he’s across the street a horse by the bridle” excite the word in our mind "leads". In the same way, an active verb excites in us a name in the form of the accusative case, the particle if - verb with past tense ending, word wear out excites the word dress, shoes, word bring in – money, inflict – an insult, win – a victory; in the same way such words as excite each other dog And bark, horse And laugh and so on. This ability of words to excite each other is based on the psychic law adjacency associations: we get used to using a given word more often with one word than with another.”
In the first example “he’s across the street with a horse by the bridle” lack of released word lead predicts not one word, which is typical for a binary syntagm with a sequential, progressive relationship, but several words at once, cf. under the collar ? lead; across the street? lead; horse? lead. Besides, horse predicts the occurrence of a combination by the reins, and vice versa.
We can conclude that we are dealing here with a multidimensional and multidirectional semantic associative-linear relationship within a sentence-statement. These associative-linear connections rightfully remind us of the concept of so-called “semantic valency”. The term is different, more fashionable and, perhaps, more successful, but the essence is the same. The relationships of semantic agreement of words linearly related to each other are demonstrated by examples with verb-noun phrases like wear out a dress, bring in money, the dog barks and so on.
When N.V. Krushevsky summarizes that “due to the law associations by similarity, words must fit into systems or nests in our minds, then, thanks to the law adjacency associations, the same words must be arranged in rows,” he thereby sheds light on the constitutive elements of the linguistic system, namely, on words and associative relations by similarity; and on the structure of speech utterances, namely, on the coordination of words in phrases and sentences, subject to the principle of association by contiguity.
However, let us pay attention to what “rows of words” we are talking about. Isn't this a paradigmatic relationship between words within a text? Are these not vertical connections of structures within the textual whole that have a similar paradigm? Or maybe these are distant thematic relationships of words within the text? The author himself speaks only about the countless connections of words by contiguity “with their various companions in all kinds of phrases” and about words as members of “known series of words.”
The concept of associative relations in language was widely developed by N. V. Krushevsky. It extended to the problems of the origin of words and the formation of verbal meanings. In particular, in the course of analyzing numerous multilingual material from living languages, the author came to the conclusion that “if our words owe their origin to associations of similarity, then they owe their meaning to associations of contiguity.” If we talk about the origin of the primary, etymological meaning of the word, then it, of course, was formed in the relation of the word to the thing designated. The mental image of a thing was the basis of the primary meaning. The transition of the mental category into the linguistic category took place. It is difficult to overestimate the role of contiguity associations, thanks to which a word entered into various linear relationships with other words. In these relations, other, so-called secondary or figurative meanings words This happened through modification and restructuring of the basic meaning of the word, which, from the status of the main one, eigenvalue words gradually degenerated into the status of other, improper meanings, retaining to one degree or another their motivational image, their co-presence.
The “wider the use of a word”, the higher the degree of polysemy of a word, the less meaningful and more “scarce” it becomes, “the word is subject to semasiological damage and is forgotten.” In addition, contiguity associations contribute to the formation of “fixed combinations.” In other words, a free combination gradually develops into an idiomatic combination, cf. privy councilor . The meaning of words included in a non-free, phraseologized syntagm becomes connected and isolated.
Associations by similarity are the essence of any name. When the necessary name of a thing is missing, we create a new name on the basis of existing verbal material, which has at least some, perhaps even indirect, relation to this thing, cf.: “We derive it from a word denoting something similar for this thing." However, sometimes we call a thing “by the name of another thing,” that is, by someone else’s name. There is no word production here, there is an indirect naming in accordance with association by similarity.
11. It is necessary to distinguish between the idea of a thing and the idea of a word.
It is interesting to note one fact, inconspicuous at first glance, that N.V. Krushevsky distinguishes two types of ideas - “the idea of a thing and the idea of the word denoting this thing.” Both representations are connected by the law of association, mainly by contiguity, less often by similarity (only if the words are onomatopoeic).
The question is, how do these types of representations differ from each other? Apparently, the sign function of the word is manifested in the idea of a thing. The word as a whole correlates with this representation, or mental image of a thing, in a semiotic act. The idea of a word, taking into account its paradigmatic equipment, is an ideal image of a word as a sign of a language system, i.e., an association of its formal-classificatory and formal-semantic and lexical-semantic organization.
However, the relationship between thing representation and verbal representation in the act of designation is carried out, according to the author, by similarity only if the acoustematic shell of the word contains signs of the designated object or the action performed by this object, as well as with it (this is the essence of onomatopoeia!). In other cases, this sign relationship, according to the author, is based on association by contiguity. Doesn’t N.V. Krushevsky exclude the meaning of the word from sign semiosis and believe that it does not take part in the designation? Elsewhere, the author notes, however, the presence of coordination of meaning (as part of a verbal representation) with the representation of the designated thing, because here, as nowhere else, the principle of association by similarity is most clearly realized.
12. The world of words corresponds to the world of thoughts, thanks to which understanding is ensured.
The semantic imprint of a word correlates with its more or less complete mental imprint analogue, thanks to which understanding becomes possible. Wed: “It will be the law of correspondence between the world of words and the world of thoughts. Indeed: if language is nothing more than a system of signs, then the ideal state of language will be one in which there is complete correspondence between the system of signs and what it denotes. We will see that the entire development of language is an eternal striving towards this ideal.”
It can be assumed that N.V. Krushevsky was not consistent in the issue of the relationship between the meaning of a word and a mental concept, that is, he sometimes mixed linguistic and mental categories, and sometimes separated them. The question also remains unclear of how meaning (the representation of a word) and the concept (the representation of a thing) can be associated by contiguity. There would be no contradictions if the author stated that the relationship of designation, i.e. the relationship between a word and a thing, and in a narrower sense, the relationship between the semantics of a word (motivational and lexical) and the image of a thing (mental concept) becomes possible, also thanks to the principle agreement, i.e. association by similarity.
13. Language is a system of signs. Language is a harmonious whole.
N.V. Krushevsky was strict about any formulations. His interpretation of language units as substitutes can be considered the most accurate definition reflecting the sign essence of language, although the author also contains definitions that are more familiar to the later “structuralist ear”, which were not noticed in a timely manner by his contemporaries, cf.: “But we should never lose sight of the basic character of language: a word is a sign of a thing.” “Language is nothing more than a system of signs.”
In the linguistic heritage of N.V. Krushevsky, a position is put forward about language as a harmonious whole, where “each verbal category is in such a more or less definite relationship of affinity and dependence not with one category, but with many.” We are talking about intercategorical cooperation in language. This problem, solved within the framework of linguistics itself, does not lose its relevance to this day.
Polygram of discussed problems (according to N.V. Krushevsky)
associations proposed by K.D. Ushinsky: by place, by time, by
opposites, similarities, “rational associations”, “associations according to
heartfelt feeling, “development association.” The influence of associations on
Originality and brightness of musical images.
Research into musical perception in the context of psychology
unconscious. “Collective unconscious” (C.-G. Jung).
Refraction of archetypal
characters (“child”, “hero”, “anima”, “mother”, “old man”, “circle”) in
Individual unconscious perception of music.
Laws of musical perception. Manifestation of the law of dominance (A.A.
Ukhtomsky) in the perception of music. Constancy of musical
perception. "The Law of Perception" N.N. Lange: change of phases of perception
Occurs from a more general nature to a more specific one,
A differentiated, diffuse idea of the subject is replaced by
More detailed.
Phases of artistic perception: impression, infection, assimilation,
comprehension, comparison with the original worldview, comprehension"
Through this super idea of the work, a generalization of the impression.
Stages of contact between the recipient and a piece of music: ancestor-
Communicative, communicative, post-communicative. Stages in
perception of music: 1) listening as physical and physiological
Process; 2) understanding and experiencing music; 3) its interpretation and
Assessment (A.N. Sokhor).
Apperception as the actualization of value and evaluative experience,
Mastered criteria and scales. Mechanisms of apperception and the problem
Adequate comprehension of a work of art. Empathy,
Empathy in the process of artistic perception. Co-creation
Recipient. Problems of understanding musical text. The role of social
Factors in the formation of the ability to perceive music. Influence
Subcultures, group background on musical perception. Stages in
development of the ability to perceive music: 1) sensorimotor learning;
Perceptual actions; 3) stage of formation of aesthetic models;
Heuristic.
The importance of mnemonic processes in the development of musical culture
Personalities. Musical memory as a complex various types memory.
The main types of musical memory: emotional,
Motor, visual, auditory, logical. The leading role of the auditory
Component in musical memory. Methods for developing musical memory.
Techniques for memorizing musical text (semantic
grouping, semantic displacement). Types of memorization: arbitrary,
Involuntary. Switching on all analyzers as necessary
Condition for the effectiveness of the memorization process.
Methods of working on memorization proposed by I. Hoffman: 1) work with
The text of the work without the instrument; 2) working with the text of the work
Behind the instrument; 3) working on a work without text (playing by heart);
Work without an instrument and without notes.
Processes of imagination in the creation of a work of art.
Individual characteristics of imagination, fantasy, intuition,
Inspirations in musical creativity.
Attention and will in the system of musical-cognitive processes. Accounting in
Practice of music education functions and properties of attention.
Attention exteriorized and interiorized in structure
musical consciousness. "Circles" of attention (K.S. Stanislavsky).
Topic 3. Features of the emotional-volitional sphere and psychomotor
Acts of a musician.
Section 1 Musical-cognitive processes of the individual psyche.
Section 2 Psychological characteristics personality and musical
Activities of students and music teachers.
Musical abilities and features from development at various
Age stages.
The problem of the relationship between general and special, congenital and
acquired abilities in music psychology. Contribution of B.M.
Association, in psychology, a connection that arises under certain conditions between two or more mental formations (sensations, motor acts, perceptions, ideas, etc.); the basic concept of associative psychology. Associations are distinguished by contiguity (in space or time), similarity and contrast. The term was introduced by J. Locke (1698).
Types of associations. According to the type of education they distinguish
Associations by similarity;
Associations by contrast;
Associations by contiguity in space or time;
Causal associations.
Any memorization or memorization presupposes the establishment of appropriate neural connections, or associations. This definition is important for understanding the psychological nature of associations. Consisting of a number of reflexes connected in the indicated way, each of which is at the same time a sensation (visual, auditory, etc.), the association itself is nothing more than a “continuous sensation”. “An association is as integral a sensation as any purely visual, purely auditory, only it usually lasts longer, and its character is constantly changing” (I.M. Sechenov). Like any individual sensation, the association is reinforced and becomes more distinct as a result of repetition. Compared to individual sensations, associations are complex formations. Thanks to repetition, the nervous processes that make it up are so closely connected that the slightest stimulation of a part entails the reproduction of the whole association. “If, for example, a visual-tactile-auditory association is given, then with the slightest external hint of its part, that is, with the weakest stimulation of the visual, or auditory, or tactile nerve by the form or sound contained in the association, it is reproduced in its entirety in consciousness.” (I.M. Sechenov). The physiological basis of associations revealed by Sechenov gives a clear picture of the physiological mechanisms of both the process of memorization (learning) and the process of reproduction. In psychology, three types of associations are distinguished by contiguity, similarity and contrast. When we remember freely gymnastic exercise, consisting of 8-10 sequentially performed elements, connections are established between the individual elements of this exercise, which are called contiguity associations. Thanks to these connections, the nervous processes that ensure the execution of one element, for example the third in a given series, cause the action of the nervous processes associated with the execution of the next, fourth, element, etc., thanks to which we perform everything consistently and without errors the exercise as a whole. Associations by contiguity also occur when memorizing verbal material, for example, when memorizing a poem. Are of a slightly different nature associations by similarity We deal with them in cases where the perception of an object evokes in memory the memory of a similar object, although this latter was never perceived by us together or next to the first. For example, the sight of the Dynamo stadium in Moscow can evoke in our memory a memory of the stadium we once saw in Kyiv. The perception of a ski jump performed by one athlete can trigger in us a memory of how other athletes performed the same ski jump under different conditions. In these cases, the original stimulus and the memory evoked by it refer to objects that have never previously been perceived simultaneously or in close contiguity. And yet one of them evokes the other in our memory. Similarity associations rely on the similarity of neural connections that are caused by two similar objects. Both stadiums are similar to each other in their general structure (presence of a football field, running track, stands, etc.), although they differ in some private architectural details. Both jumps are also similar in appearance and style (the presence of a slope along which the skier slides, the same grouping in flight, similar hand movements to maintain balance in the air, etc.), although they differ in some of their features (different terrain, different skier etc.). Similar moments in these objects perceived at different times cause similar neural connections, reflecting common features in both objects, due to which the excitation in the cerebral cortex of connections related to one object naturally causes the revival of connections related to another. Similarity associations are of great importance in any educational process. Thanks to them, we get the opportunity to compare the phenomena under study with those already studied, find common and individual features in them, and thus better assimilate and remember required material. Close in form to associations by similarity associations by contrast, in which the perception of an object evokes a memory of another object, distinguished by directly opposite characteristics. When we enter a poorly constructed stadium, our memory may evoke an image of the exemplary stadium we had previously seen. Observing the failure of some complex task physical exercise, for example, pole vaulting, we can remember how a famous master of sports performs this exercise perfectly. Associations by contrast are temporary connections, including ideas about contrasting objects in the form of members of a common whole that are opposite in nature and meaning. This is facilitated by the fact that in practical activity these opposite objects (cleanliness and dirt, organization and laxity, health and illness, etc.) are usually juxtaposed and compared, which leads to the formation of corresponding neural connections. Associations can have as their starting point not only the direct perception of the first member of such a temporary connection, but also the idea of it that has arisen in the mind, as well as verbal stimuli. Thus, the laws of associations become very important for all memory processes and can be found in any of these processes. IN educational work As a rule, we are dealing with the deliberate formation of associations in order to better assimilate educational material. All associations are of a conditioned reflex nature; their physiological basis is the closure function of the cortex. In their occurrence and course, they are subject to the basic laws of the formation of conditioned reflexes. In accordance with these laws, in order to quickly and accurately form the required associations, it is necessary˸ a) to correctly combine stimuli, that is, to present a stimulus that we would like to associate with what is already known, so that it somewhat precedes the already formed idea; b) organize a sufficient number of repetitions to consolidate the new connection that interests us, while relying on already established and secured connections.
Association. Its main types. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Association. Its main types." 2015, 2017-2018.
A) Syntagmatic in nature. These are pairs of words in which the content of one member (the meaning of a procedural or non-procedural feature) is included in the content of the second member as one of the features of this content (grandmother is old, grandmother is knitting). These associative pairs are usually represented by agreed words various parts speech. However, they may also include associations organized by the type of phrases with inconsistent definitions (grandmother is wearing a headscarf).
B) Paradigmatic in nature. These are pairs of words that have at least one common essential feature in their content. They are quite diverse and include associative pairs correlated with members of various lexical-semantic, thematic, etc. fields and groups (grandmother - grandfather, grandmother - old woman, white - black, white - color, run - go, head - block, bread - food etc.).
The distinction made between verbal associations is not absolute, but is of a relative nature, since some associative pairs may simultaneously belong to various types and subtypes. For example, in a couple grandmother grandfather one can discern both similarities of a paradigmatic nature (a common feature is an old man) and contiguity (grandmother And grandfather). Paired with White color On the one hand, hypo-/hyperonymic relationships appear (color - white, black, red, green etc.) - paradigmatics, on the other hand - the relationship of a sign to an object (White color, white etc.) - syntagmatics.
The noted types of relationships between the contents of members of associative pairs manifest themselves at a deep level and, ultimately (at the source) underlie the vast majority of verbal associations. Phonetic (night - daughter) and grammatical (table -- table) associations are associations by formal similarity. Word-forming associative pairs (write--record), having common elements of both substantive and formal plans, they form an intermediate type between substantive and formal associations in terms of similarity.
The considered classification of verbal associations is based on the delimitation of the relationships that exist between the contents or forms of associated words, and is applicable, first of all, for dividing individual associative pairs Stimulus - Reaction (S--R) into appropriate types. At the same time, observations of the peculiarities of the organization of associative fields (AF) as complex wholes make it possible to identify specific patterns in their structure, in the relationships that exist between their components.
It is known that each AP obtained through a mass free associative experiment (AE) has its own core, peripheral areas of varying degrees of distance, and a so-called tail of low-frequency reactions, which also includes purely individual (sometimes completely unique) reactions. And if these individual reactions are almost always generated directly on the basis of one of the types of relationships between S and R discussed above, then the generation of standard (stereotypical, reproducible, socially significant) associations is based on a number of special patterns. There are sufficient grounds to assert that a very significant place among standard associations is occupied by associations that arise on the basis of the regular co-occurrence of words in texts (functional contiguity), which N.V. Krushevsky called “direct associations by contiguity.” According to A.A. Leontiev, these are, first of all, speech, caused by the patterns of joint occurrence of words in speech (high - toptain, high - mountain), as well as linguistic, caused by patterns of co-occurrence of words in a language, reflecting a common language pattern (high -- school higher -- school) associations. Let us give an example of a specific linguistic (psycholinguistic) study that provides the opportunity to establish some features of verbal connections in AP, the relationships between its constituent elements, as well as clarify the conditions for the emergence of these connections and relationships.
In order to study the relationship between associative and situational-thematic (STP) fields, we compared their composition and structure. For this purpose, on the one hand, a free AE was carried out on the stimulus word birch, on the other hand, distributive-statistical analysis of the word birch according to connected texts of various sizes and nature. Only complete vocabulary was analyzed. The main results of the study indicate a significant coincidence and closeness in the distribution of thematically significant words in AP and STP, which once again confirms the possibility of considering AP as direct psychological analogues of STP. Generalization of AP and STP data makes it possible to determine with the greatest completeness and reliability the standard (stable) parts of lexical associations, thematically organized in the linguistic consciousness of people directly for communicative purposes. The most significant area of such a generalized field, according to the materials considered, looks like this.
White 141 (76+65), tree 98 (30+68), slim 82 (66+16), Russian 74 (35+39), grove 74 (33+41), forest 72 (27+45), curly 57 (42+15), stand 60 (20+40), green 53 (36+17), sheet 43 (16+27), juice 43 (24+19), thin 41 (24+17), Russia 41 (15+26), homeland 36 (20+16), Beautiful 36 (15+21), white-trunked 34 (25+9), broom 34 (21+13), grow 32 (12+20), trunk 32 (9+23), young woman 33 (21+12), bark 31 (9+22), young 31 (7+24), birch bark 27 (16+11), high 27 (16+11), field 26 (11+15), branch 25 (3+22), gentle 25 (20+5), weeping 25 (12+13), earrings 25 (13+12), Earth 24 (4+20), oak 23 (9+14), branch 21 (11+10), gorgeous 21 (12+9), beauty 21 (11+10), wind 20 (3+17), spring 19 (10+9), foliage 19 (5+14), song 19 (6+13), grass 19 (11+8), sky 18 (14+4), aspen 18 (7+11), Sun 18 (12+6), Human 18 (1+17), river 17 (5+12), loyal 17 (3+14), house 16 (5+11), firewood 16 (9+7), maple 16 (4+12), tears 16 (3+13), pacifier 16 (5+11), mushroom 15 (9+6), symbol 15 (3+12), cry 15 (4+11), light 15 (6+9).
Thus, there is every reason to assert that in their standard parts, AP and STP are essentially two different shapes(ideal and material), two types (AP and STP), two different ways(in linguistic consciousness and texts) of the real existence of the same thing. Consequently, it is legitimate to assume that all the most stereotypical (socially significant) verbal associations arise and are consolidated in the linguistic consciousness of people to a large extent under the influence of texts as a natural result of a person’s constant existence not only in the world of things (primarily the biosphere), but also in the world of words (linguosphere), these things represent, mediate, as a result of the regular joint occurrence of the same words in thematically homogeneous texts. Otherwise, for example, it is difficult to explain the high frequency of such reactions to a stimulus birch, How slender, curly, weeping etc., since it is unlikely that the “slenderness”, “curliness”, “weeping quality” of the birch tree is “discovered” anew each time by the subjects (or speakers, writers). It is also very significant that the more often a word appears in the text, the more often it appears in the experiment. Consequently, what is in speech and texts is one way or another reflected and fixed in the linguistic consciousness of people, and vice versa - what is in the linguistic consciousness of people, one way or another manifests itself (or in principle can always manifest itself) in speech, texts ( also in the experiment). Thus, almost all stereotypical verbal associations relate to associations by functional contiguity (associations of use), although, taken in themselves and considered from a substantive and formal point of view, they at the same time represent one of the previously noted types of associations by contiguity or similarity.
The results of the comparison of AP and STP also confirm the possibility of interpreting the stimulus word as a topic word that sets and organizes the AP. This suggests that at the top (most general) level of AP organization, all its elements are actually united on the basis of thematic relations themselves, within which all other types of connections and relationships possible between nominative units of language are manifested: synonymous, antonymic, hypo-/ hyperonymic, etc.
So, the proposed classification of verbal associations fits completely within the framework of the main classification of associations by similarity or contiguity as its special case. The vast majority of verbal associations represent associations that arise on the basis of relations of contiguity or similarity that exist between the contents of associated words and reflect the relations between phenomena of the objective world. It is these relationships that are, ultimately, the fundamental basis for the emergence of the bulk of verbal associations, which are then “replicated” by people in the process of their real speech communication and experiments, which, in particular, is confirmed by the results of our comparison of AP and STP. Based on this, it can be argued that at the level of organization of AP as a complex whole, a significant place is occupied by associations of functional contiguity (usage associations), which arise and are consolidated in the linguistic consciousness of people on the basis of the regular co-occurrence of words in speech and texts (speech and language associations) . At the most general level of organization of the AP, all its elements are united on the basis of thematic relations proper, since the stimulus word is at the same time the word-theme that creates and organizes this field. Within the framework of general thematic relations that unite all elements of AP, other types of connections and relationships possible between nominative units of language appear.
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