Errors caused by ignorance of the lexical meaning of a word. Speech errors. Business communication etiquette
These types of errors include:
non-distinction between words - paronyms (paronyms are related, similar-sounding, words with the same root that differ in meaning), for example:
present and provide
guaranteed and guaranteed
business traveler and business traveler
place and post
carry out and produce
pay and pay, etc.
inattention to the shades of meaning of synonymous words (synonyms are words that have the same or very similar meaning); synonyms are rarely absolutely identical; as a rule, they differ in shades of meaning. Inattention to them, ignorance of the norms of lexical compatibility of words leads to semantic violations, for example:
RIGHT WRONG:
build a farm build a farm
build a bridge build a kiosk
defects in design defects in education
the presence of pleonasm words in the text (pleonasms are words that are close in meaning); this deficiency is usually a consequence of the inability to express oneself accurately and concisely; it is often caused by ignorance of the meaning of a borrowed word (when combining words of Russian and foreign origin that mean the same thing), for example:
disappears uselessly
joint cooperation
disappears in vain
advanced avant-garde
practical activities
break interval
mutual assistance to each other
price list
commemorative memorial
timekeeping
interior interior
autobiography of life, etc.
Some pleonasms, however, acquired a terminological character (for example: “information message”) or the character of a stable phrase (for example: “entirely and completely”). Such combinations are also acceptable if the word included in the phrase has changed its meaning or acquired a new connotation, for example:
second-hand book (in the sense of “old”)
period of time (the word “period” does not mean “time”, but “a period of time”)
monumental monument (“monumental” - meaning “large”, “majestic”);
the presence in the text of a tautology (semantic repetitions), which arises if words of the same root are adjacent, for example:
“Achievements that the enterprise has achieved...”; “the following facts should be taken into account...”; “this phenomenon manifests itself in...”
Repetition of words with the same root is acceptable if the repeated words are the only carriers of meaning, for example:
“Investigative authorities have investigated...”;
verbosity, or speech redundancy, i.e. the use of words and phrases that carry unnecessary information, for example:
Instead of: “Tariffs for travel of passengers by urban passenger transport”
Necessary: “Tariffs for travel by urban passenger transport”
Instead of: “Program of measures to support the activities of veteran organizations”
Necessary: “Program to support the activities of veteran organizations”
Instead of: “It was found that the existing prices are inflated”
Necessary: “It was determined that the prices were inflated.”
Instead of: “In his speech, he pointed out certain shortcomings”
Necessary: “In his speech he pointed to some shortcomings»;
the use in one phrase of words with opposite meanings, often mutually exclusive, for example:
“The idea of food orders was developed jointly with responsible employees of the City Hall, and there are enough goods to provide low-income citizens with the minimum necessary products” (if there are “quite enough” goods, then why “the minimum”? It should be written: “there are enough goods to provide the minimum”) ;
omission of words, especially verbal nouns such as: organization, implementation, provision, carrying out, approval, etc., for example:
Instead of: “Conducting an experiment on the nutrition of schoolchildren”
Necessary: “Conducting an experiment on organizing meals for schoolchildren”
Instead of: "About the program social protection low-income categories of citizens »
Necessary: “On approval of the Social Protection Program for low-income citizens.”
End of work -
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All topics in this section:
Organizations
Calculation of the volume of document flow can be carried out both in the entire sector of the national economy and in individual management levels: a production association, a separate organization
Reducing the volume of document flow
Document flow or movement, the passage of a document between its drafters and consumers is an integral part of the documentation support of any management system from industry to
Registration and indexing of documents
To ensure the effective use of information when making various types of decisions, making available to specialists the entire array of information on a specific issue
The composition of normatively established indicators for entering into the information retrieval system and the rules for filling them out
Details Explanations for filling out Author (correspondent) Name of document type Date of document &
Control over the execution of documents
Control over the execution of documents and decisions made is a key management function. An array of control information is part of the organization's information retrieval system.
And documentary information
Full cycle human interaction with the document environment includes the following stages: documentation, understood as certified recording of information in special ways;
Documents and case formation
Improving the work of the management apparatus, the efficiency and quality of resolving issues contained in documents, largely depend on the organization of document storage,
Compiling case headings
The title of the case is the most important element of the nomenclature. The main requirements for its preparation are to clearly and in a generalized form reflect the main content and composition of the case documents. Heading
Setting retention periods for files
The value of documents deposited in the fund-forming organization is not the same. Some are necessary only for operational work for a certain time and are long-lasting
Activities and formation of affairs
Prompt storage of documents is carried out in the services of preschool educational institutions, other structural divisions organizations before submitting them to the departmental archive. Operational storage is divided into
General requirements for the formation of cases
Work on the formation of cases consists of the following operations: distribution of executed documents among cases in accordance with the nomenclature of cases; document location
Documents
Administrative documents are formed into separate cases by name (orders, instructions, instructions, decisions), which are specified by authorship (orders of the ministry, p.
Case cover design
The case is considered opened after inclusion in the storage folder of the first executed document. At the same time, the cover of the opened case is drawn up. On the cover of every company
Documentary information
In modern Russian market economy a prerequisite for the success of an entrepreneur in business, making a profit and maintaining the integrity of the organizational structure he has created
And the channels for its disclosure
Sources (owners) of valuable, confidential documented information are storage devices (concentrators, emitters) of this information. Among the main types of sources
And confidential documents
The information security system (IPS) is a complex of organizational, technical and technological means, methods and measures that prevent unauthorized (illegal)
Secure document flow
Document flow as an object of protection is a set (network) of channels for distributing documented confidential information to consumers in the process of managing
Documents
In the process of processing received confidential documents, the following tasks of protecting information and its media are solved: to prevent confidential information from entering the company
Document data bank
Accounting for confidential documents involves not only registering the fact of creation (issue) or receipt of a document, but also the mandatory recording of all movements of the document according to information.
With documents
When documents leave the confidential documentation service, their security is sharply reduced due to the authorized review of them by a significant number of employees
Documents
The main form of accounting for cases containing confidential documents is the nomenclature of cases for the current year, in accordance with which the formation, storage and verification of data are organized
During meetings and negotiations
Meetings and negotiations, during which information that is a secret of the company or its partners may be mentioned, are usually called confidential. Permission on the wire
Protecting documented information
Regulatory and methodological support for the protection of confidential information is intended to regulate the processes of ensuring information security of a company, including during work
Russian Federation
The information storage system began to take shape simultaneously with the formation of the business writing system. Storage of information from chaotic becomes systemic as a result of evaluation
Russian Federation Foundation
The basis of the Unified State Archive Fund in 1918 was made up of: nationalized former departmental historical archives; cases of liquidated educational institutions
Commercial firm archive
In accordance with the Fundamentals of the legislation of the Russian Federation on the Archival Fund Russian Federation and archives dated 300 July 7, 1993 “a set of documents reflecting
Storage
Completed cases, completed projects, executed documents of permanent and long-term, over 10 years, storage are subject to mandatory additional registration and description in accordance with
Composition of archive accounting documents
For all files completed in office work, journals, file cabinets, projects and other storage units, personnel files of permanent and temporary (over 10 years) storage, past
Archive storage equipment
Cases with long-term and permanent storage periods must be preserved until the end of the established period and they are allocated for destruction, before the cases are handed over to state storage or
Using archive documents
The use of documents stored in the archive is one of the main tasks, which to some extent justifies the investment in its organization. Depending on the purpose of use (gender
Secretarial activities
Large-scale socio-economic changes taking place in our society, updating the management system and its constituent elements, dynamic and widespread implementation of the latest
Activities of the secretary
If we consider the normative, methodological and legal systems of personnel management in a broad sense, this is a set of documents of organizational, organizational and methodological, or
Development of a job description for a secretary
An approximate sequence of work to create such an important document as job description regulating the activities of each employee, including the secretary, may
Secretary training instructions
The extensive experience in training management personnel within the company is implemented in the development of training instructions. The presentation of the technology for creating these documents is an elementary
Areas of application of training instructions
The very name “training instructions” contains the main goal of development and scope of the document - employee training. Training is necessary when: a person enters a job
Secretary's instructions
A manager interested in ensuring the clear and effective activities of his secretary should facilitate the creation of a training instruction (TI). Development of instructions by specialists
Technologies
Management activities in any organization are based on data processing and production of output information, which presupposes the availability of technology for converting source data
Technologies
Information technology arose on Earth several million years ago, along with the first methods of communication (inarticulate sounds, facial expressions, gestures, touches) of our children.
Modern information technologies
The basis of modern information technologies is distributed computer technology, “friendly” software and developed communications. However, computers are not
Technicians
Documentation support for managerial work is implemented through office work services for the activities of the management apparatus. Implementation of documentation processes
Techniques for modern office technologies
The classification of office equipment discussed in this section does not completely deny the previously existing one, but only clarifies and concretizes it taking into account modern trends.
Documents
The means of drawing up and producing documents include hand-held writing instruments, typewriters, specialized software products for personal computers(PC), oven
Printing
Reprography and operational printing tools are a set of machines designed for copying and reproducing documents. The means of reprography include photo means
Document processing tools
The group of document processing tools includes machines and devices for physical processing of the medium (the form material that is the physical basis of the document). To them about
Telecommunications
Telecommunications include means and systems of telephone, telegraph communication, facsimile transmission of information, e-mail, etc. The beginning of telephone communication began
Other office equipment
Banking office equipment includes specialized machines and devices designed for processing banknotes, coins, various types of plastic credit and other cards. Technologist
Electronic office concept
The key to solving the problem of increasing the level of efficiency of office personnel is the concept of the so-called electronic (automated) office. In this case p
Technicians
In the field of computer technology in the last decade, there has probably been no more important and actively developing direction than the formation and development of local computing systems.
Computer networks
A global (large-scale) computer network WAN (Wide Area Network) is a set of computer nodes geographically remote from each other, jointly interacting
Transfer of continuous and discrete data
Briefly, the term data defines units that convey meaning or meaning. Continuous (analog) data has values that change continuously over a certain time interval. As
Data encoding for digital and analog transmission
Analog signal transmission is based on the transmission of a continuous signal of constant frequency, called a carrier signal. Discrete data when transmitted over analog communication lines
Multiplexing
Both in local and large-scale networks, there are cases when the capacity of the transmission medium exceeds that required for the transmission of a single signal. Economical use
Asynchronous and synchronous digital transmission
The basic requirement for digital data transmission is that the recipient knows the start point and time period of transmission of each bit received. The oldest and simplest
Stations, nodes, communication network and switching methods
Devices that interact with each other via a network are usually called stations. Computers, terminals, printers and other communication equipment can act as stations.
Circuit switching method
Circuit switching is used in networks when it is necessary to establish a direct physical channel connection between two stations. This connection is established in comm
Message switching method
Message switching is an implementation of the principle of stage-by-stage data transmission with intermediate storage. There is no need to reserve the entire route between two stations in advance. Message
Packet switching methods
The message switching method has currently found its development in the packet switching technique, which is used in two Modifications: in datagram mode and in virtual channel mode.
Open Systems Interoperability Model
To overcome differences when using hardware and software from different manufacturers in computer networks and differences in individual modifications of these tools, even from the same manufacturer Me
OSI Model Layers
Each network subscriber system within the OSI model has seven layers (layer numbers from 1 to 7). Subscribers can interact with each other within each of the seven levels using the corresponding
The simplest local area networks
As already noted, the simplest homogeneous LANs do not have communication nodes. These networks usually use very simple procedures for network stations to access a common transmission medium.
Token Ring
The Token Ring standard (IEEE 802.2), proposed by IBM in 1984, is a more advanced scheme for implementing a deterministic method of controlling network access using tokens.
Ethernet
The most widespread is the cheaper version of the Ethernet standard (IEEE 802.3), developed by XEROX. Logically, this network is a bus through which each node communicates
High-speed local networks
Further development Ethernet technology has introduced a new Fast Ethernet standard, also known as 100Base-T and 100Base-X technologies, providing data transfer rates of up to 100 Mbit/s when used
Texts
Text processing as a direction in the development of technology arose at the beginning of the 20th century. with the advent of the mechanical typewriter. Then, for more than half a century, the typewriter remained the only
Stages of preparing text documents
Preparing texts using SPTD consists of sequentially performing a number of stages. With some degree of convention we can highlight: typing; edit
Typing
At modern level With the development of computer information technology, the PC keyboard remains the main text input tool for future documents. You can type on the keyboard
Basic text editing functions
The document text created at the typing stage may be subject to changes in the future. With the traditional technology of producing documents using an ordinary typewriter, it is not even possible
Documents
Modern means of preparing text documents use two types of design of structural elements of the text. This is the immediate appearance when formatting is applied
Formatting text symbols
The minimum unit of information that the text preparation system operates on is a symbol. All operations for editing and formatting document text are applicable to symbols. Preparation systems
Matrix fonts
Until recently, this category was the only one. Fonts in this case are created using the so-called bitmap technology, or the bitmap method. A file with such a font stores “dot” images
Freely scalable fonts
The second way to create fonts is to encode the outline of the character in the form of straight and curved lines. These fonts are also called freely scalable fonts. When creating a font, they use
Formatting document paragraphs
Appearance The layout of a document largely depends not only on the formatting of text characters, but also on the design of paragraphs of text. The paragraph is one of the main structural elements of prose
Layout of pages of a multi-page document
If a text preparation system is used to create and design a multi-page document, then new structural elements may appear in the text: headers, footers, footers, bookmarks, crossbars.
Printing a document
Printing a document is usually one of the main purposes of creating a document. Printing process technologies are constantly being improved, which makes it possible to obtain a “hard” copy of p
Create a Document Template
Modern information technologies actively use the idea of saving not only a specific result of work in the form of a document, but also a set of actions (one might say a program
Working with large documents
In the system for preparing text documents, a “large” document is understood as a document that has not only (and not so much) a large volume, but also a complex structure. This class includes various
Desktop Publishing
The emergence of desktop publishing systems (DPS) was made possible thanks to three events: Apple Computer introduced the LaserWriter printer; Adobe Systems has included the op language
SPTD development trends
Today, word processors are increasingly included in new-generation office application software systems. In addition to the SPTD package, the complex includes a spreadsheet, programs
Preparation of spreadsheet documents
When solving various economic, financial and other problems in management activities it is necessary to present and process information in tabular form in the form of various types
Tabular documents
A spreadsheet document is based on the concept of a table. A table is verbal and digital material organized into vertical columns (graphs or columns) and horizontal lines, forming
Working window structure
The working window of a modern spreadsheet processor consists of the following elements: 1. Title bar. The title line contains the name of the program, the name of the current file (
Data entry and editing
After starting the spreadsheet processor and the working window appears, the mode for entering data into table cells (worksheet) is usually set. As already indicated, one of the cells is current or
Formatting table elements
To correctly format a table in accordance with certain requirements, various format parameters can be set for individual elements (objects) of the table. Cell Format
The entire history of computer technology can be represented as the development of two main directions of its use: for solving complex mathematical calculations, the implementation of which is impossible
Databases
1. Data management in external memory. The function of managing data in external memory includes providing the necessary external memory structures for direct storage of data
Typical organization of a modern DBMS
The organization of a typical DBMS and the composition of its components corresponds to the set of functions. Logically, in a modern DBMS, one can distinguish the internal part - the DBMS core (Data Base Engine), compil
Databases
The functionality of data models becomes available to DBMS users thanks to its language tools. In this case we are talking about DBMS users, including
QBE language
This is a language that belongs to the class of high-level database management languages and provides the user with a convenient and unified interface for performing database maintenance operations.
SQL language
The data itself in computer form is of no interest to the user if there are no means of accessing it. Access is carried out in the form of requests, which are formulated in standard
Database management systems
Database management systems have become the main tool for storing large amounts of information. Modern information applications rely, as I already said,
Access Control
Access control is based on the implementation of the following minimum set of actions: random access control; ensuring the safety of object reuse;
Integrity support
Ensuring data integrity is no less important than access control. From the point of view of DBMS users, the main means of maintaining data integrity are restrictions and rights.
Logging and auditing
A measure such as logging and auditing consists of the following: detection of unusual and suspicious user actions and identification of the persons who committed these actions; estimates
Securing communications between client and server
The problem of protecting communications between client and server in information systems ah is not DBMS specific. To ensure the protection of information, a security service is allocated, the functions of which
Distributed data processing systems
The need for shared data in Lately is increasingly increasing. This was the reason for increasing attention to various distributed processing systems.
Distributed Databases
DBMS and centralization of information processing made it possible to eliminate such disadvantages of traditional file systems as disconnection, inconsistency and redundancy of data. As databases grow and
Independence from the central node
In an ideal system, all nodes are equal and independent, and the databases located on them are equal suppliers of data to the common data space. Database on each of the self-sufficient nodes
Location Transparency
This property means complete transparency of the data location. The user accessing the DDB should not know anything about the real, physical placement of data in the nodes of the information system. All
Processing distributed transactions
This quality of DDB can be interpreted as the ability to perform update operations on a distributed database (INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE) without destroying the integrity and consistency of the data. This goal
Database independence
This quality means that DBMSs from different manufacturers can peacefully coexist in a distributed system and search and update operations are possible in databases of different models and formats.
Next generation
Being the main fundamental means of building information systems used in production, business, etc. scientific activities, databases and management systems for them
Systems
In documentary information retrieval systems - DIPS (they are also called bibliographic) the search for a document occurs according to a brief formalized description of its content - the so-called
Information retrieval languages
For communication between a person and a computer, special artificial languages are being developed; natural language (NL) in this capacity cannot yet be used without special preliminary
Descriptive information retrieval languages
Descriptive languages are semantically more powerful than classification languages, but are more difficult to formally process. Descriptor - a keyword or phrase that serves them
Information retrieval thesaurus
There are two possible ways to arrange words in dictionaries: by proximity of their letter composition and by semantic proximity. Using the first method, alphabetical dictionaries are created. On the second with
Forming queries in them
In DIPS, document search occurs by viewing the search image of the document. This organization of document search has its advantages and disadvantages. Submissions
Documentary information
Document indexing is a procedure for displaying document text in a specific form intended for automatic processing (document index). There are manual
Arrays in IPS
The central part of each information retrieval system is an information retrieval array (IRA), which can be organized in various ways. In DIPS, IPM is divided into two parts: the document itself
Hypertext technologies for searching documentary information
Hypertext (non-linear text) is an organization of textual information in which the text consists of many fragments with clearly indicated associative connections between these fragments.
Document automation systems
Automation of document flow consists of comprehensive automation of the tasks of development, approval, distribution, search and archival storage of organizational documents. Constantly taken away
And expert systems
Development of knowledge-based systems is integral part research on artificial intelligence and aims to create computer methods for solving problems, usually three
Characteristics of an expert system
Let us consider the characteristics of the expert system in more detail. The core of an expert system is the knowledge base, which is created and accumulated in the process of its construction. Knowledge vyr
Knowledge and models of its representation
For specialists in the field artificial intelligence the term "knowledge" refers to the information that a program needs in order for it to behave "intelligently". Functioning
Logical models of knowledge representation
The main idea of the logical approach is to consider the entire knowledge system necessary for solving applied problems and organizing the interaction of a computer with a user.
Network models of knowledge representation
Models of this type are based on a structure previously called a semantic network. Network models can be formally specified in the form H =< I, С1, С2,
Frame apparatus (frames for knowledge representation)
One of the varieties of the semantic networks apparatus is associated with the concept of a frame. A frame can be considered as a fragment of a semantic network intended to describe an object (sit
Product models
Products, along with frames, are the most popular means of representing knowledge in knowledge-based systems. Products, on the one hand, are close to the logical model
Expert systems
The process of creating expert systems has undergone significant changes over the past few years. Thanks to the emergence of special tools (IS) for building ES, the
Knowledge Engineering
As already noted, the technology for building expert systems is often called knowledge engineering. As a rule, this process requires a specific form of interaction between the creator of the expert
Methodology for developing expert systems
The development (design) of an ES differs significantly from the development of a conventional software product. The experience of developing early ES has shown that the use of a methodology in their development
Work with documents
Textbook Editor V,I. Osipov Corrector M.V. Litvinova Computer layout O.N. Emelyanova Artist
I. Typical mistakes. Classification
II. Speech errors
- Misunderstanding the meaning of a word. Lexical compatibility
- Use of synonyms, homonyms, ambiguous words
- Verbosity. Lexical incompleteness of the utterance. New words
- Outdated words. Words of foreign origin
- Dialectisms. Colloquial and colloquial words. Jargonisms
- Phraseologisms. Clichés and stamps
IV. Logical errors
V. Grammar errors
VI. Syntax errors
I. Typical mistakes. Classification
Communicative literacy is understood as the ability to create texts of different functional and semantic types of speech in the form of different functional styles.
Essays and presentations are the main forms of testing the ability to correctly and consistently express thoughts in accordance with the topic and intent, testing the level of speech preparation. They are used simultaneously to test spelling and punctuation skills and are assessed, firstly, in terms of content and structure (sequence of presentation) and, secondly, in terms of linguistic design.
Most of the errors that occur when students perform written work are also typical for other types of written work, be it writing a business paper (application, order, contract, etc.), preparing a report, article or text material for WEB pages. Therefore, the analysis of errors of this kind is of great importance for everyday activities.
Typical errors include the following groups:
Speech errors
Violation of the correct transmission of factual material
Logical errors
Grammatical errors
Syntax errors
II. Speech errors
The word is the most important unit of language, the most diverse and voluminous. It is the word that reflects all the changes taking place in the life of society. The word not only names an object or phenomenon, but also performs an emotionally expressive function.
And when choosing words, we must pay attention to their meaning, stylistic coloring, usage, and compatibility with other words. Since violation of at least one of these criteria can lead to a speech error.
The main causes of speech errors:
1. Misunderstanding the meaning of the word
2. Lexical compatibility
3. Use of synonyms
4. Use of homonyms
5. Using polysemantic words
6. Verbosity
7. Lexical incompleteness of the statement
8. New words
9. Outdated words
10. Words of foreign origin
11. Dialectisms
12. Colloquial and colloquial words
13. Professional jargon
14. Phraseologisms
15. Clichés and cliches
1. Misunderstanding of the meaning of the word.
1.1. Using a word in a meaning that is unusual for it.
Example:
The fire grew hotter and hotter. The error lies in the wrong choice of word:
Inflame - 1. Get very hot high temperature, get hot. 2. (trans.) To become very excited, to become overwhelmed by some strong feeling.
To flare up - to begin to burn strongly or well, evenly.
1.2. The use of significant and function words without taking into account their semantics.
Example:
Thanks to the fire that broke out from the fire, a large area of the forest burned down.
In modern Russian, the preposition thanks retains a certain semantic connection with the verb to thank and is usually used only in cases where the reasons that cause a desired result are spoken of: thanks to someone’s help, support. The error arises due to the semantic distraction of the preposition from the original verb to thank. In this sentence, the preposition thanks should be replaced with one of the following: because of, as a result, as a result.
1.3. Selection of words-concepts with different bases of division (concrete and abstract vocabulary).
Example:
We offer complete treatment for alcoholics and other diseases.
If we are talking about diseases, then the word alcoholics should be replaced with alcoholism. An alcoholic is someone who suffers from alcoholism. Alcoholism is a painful addiction to drinking alcoholic beverages.
1.4. Incorrect use of paronyms.
Example:
A person leads a festive life. I'm in an idle mood today.
Idle and festive are very similar words, with the same root. But they have different meanings: festive - an adjective for holiday (celebratory dinner, festive mood); idle - not filled, not busy with business, work (idle life). To restore the meaning of the statements in the example, you need to swap the words.
2. Lexical compatibility.
When choosing a word, you should take into account not only the meaning that is inherent in it in literary language, but also lexical compatibility. Not all words can be combined with each other. The boundaries of lexical compatibility are determined by the semantics of words, their stylistic affiliation, emotional coloring, grammatical properties, etc.
Example:
A good leader must set an example for his subordinates in everything. You can show an example, but not a sample. And you can be a role model, for example.
Example:
Their strong friendship, tempered by life's trials, was noticed by many. The word friendship is combined with the adjective strong - strong friendship.
What should be distinguished from a speech error is the deliberate combination of seemingly incompatible words: a living corpse, an ordinary miracle... In this case, we have one of the types of tropes - an oxymoron.
In difficult cases, when it is difficult to determine whether certain words can be used together, it is necessary to use a compatibility dictionary.
3. Use of synonyms.
Synonyms enrich the language and make our speech figurative. Synonyms may have different functional and stylistic connotations. Thus, the words error, miscalculation, oversight, error are stylistically neutral and commonly used; hole, overlay - colloquial; gaffe - colloquial; blunder - professional slang. Using one of the synonyms without taking into account its stylistic coloring can lead to a speech error.
Example:
Having made a mistake, the plant director immediately began to correct it.
When using synonyms, the ability of each of them to be more or less selectively combined with other words is often not taken into account.
Differing in shades of lexical meaning, synonyms can express different degrees of manifestation of a characteristic or action. But, even denoting the same thing, being interchangeable in some cases, in others synonyms cannot be replaced - this leads to a speech error.
Example:
Yesterday I was sad. The synonym sad is quite suitable here: Yesterday I was sad. But in two-part sentences these synonyms are interchangeable. I look sadly at our generation...
4. Use of homonyms.
Thanks to the context, homonyms are usually understood correctly. But still, in certain speech situations, homonyms cannot be understood unambiguously.
Example:
The crew is in excellent condition. Is the crew a cart or a team? The word crew itself is used correctly. But to reveal the meaning of this word, it is necessary to expand the context.
Very often, ambiguity is caused by the use in speech (especially oral) of homophones (sounding the same, but spelled differently) and homoforms (words that have the same sound and spelling in certain forms). So, when choosing words for a phrase, we must pay attention to the context, which in some speech situations is designed to reveal the meaning of the words.
5. Use of polysemantic words.
When including polysemantic words in our speech, we must be very careful, we must monitor whether the meaning that we wanted to reveal in this speech situation is clear. When using polysemous words (as well as when using homonyms), context is very important. It is thanks to the context that one or another meaning of a word is clear. And if the context meets its requirements (a semantically complete segment of speech that allows one to establish the meanings of the words or phrases included in it), then each word in the sentence is understandable. But it also happens differently.
Example:
He's already sung. It’s not clear: either he started singing and got carried away; or, after singing for a while, he began to sing freely, easily.
7. Lexical incompleteness of the statement.
This error is the opposite of verbosity. An incomplete statement consists of missing a necessary word in the sentence.
Example:
The advantage of Kuprin is that there is nothing superfluous. Kuprin may have nothing superfluous, but this sentence is missing (and not even just one) word. Or: “... do not allow statements on the pages of the press and television that could incite ethnic hatred.” So it turns out - “television page”.
When choosing a word, it is necessary to take into account not only its semantics, lexical, stylistic and logical compatibility, but also its scope. The use of words that have a limited sphere of distribution (lexical new formations, obsolete words, words of foreign origin, professionalisms, jargon, dialectisms) should always be motivated by the conditions of the context.
8. New words.
Poorly formed neologisms are speech errors.
Example:
And last year, 23 thousand rubles were spent on pothole repairs after the spring thaw. And only the context helps to understand: “pothole repair” is the repair of holes.
9. Outdated words.
Archaisms - words that name existing realities, but for some reason have been forced out of active use by synonymous lexical units - must correspond to the style of the text, otherwise they are completely inappropriate.
Example:
Today was the day at the university open doors. Here the obsolete word now (today, now, currently) is completely inappropriate.
Among the words that have fallen out of active use, historicisms also stand out. Historicisms are words that have fallen out of use due to the disappearance of the concepts they denote: armyak, camisole, bursa, oprichnik, etc. Errors in the use of historicisms are often associated with ignorance of their lexical meaning.
Example:
The peasants cannot stand their hard life and go to the main governor of the city. Governor is the head of a region (for example, a province in Tsarist Russia, states in the USA). Consequently, the chief governor is an absurdity; moreover, there could only be one governor in the province, and his assistant was called the vice-governor.
10. Words of foreign origin.
Now many people have an addiction to foreign words, sometimes without even knowing them exact value. Sometimes the context does not accept a foreign word.
Example: The work of the conference is limited due to the lack of leading specialists. Limit - set a limit on something, limit it. Foreign word limit in this sentence should be replaced with the words: going slower, stopped, etc.
11. Dialectisms.
Dialectisms are words or stable combinations that are not included in the lexical system of the literary language and belong to one or more dialects of the Russian national language. Dialectisms are justified in artistic or journalistic speech to create speech characteristics of heroes. The unmotivated use of dialectisms indicates insufficient knowledge of the norms of the literary language.
Example: A scavenger came to me and sat there the whole evening. Shaberka is a neighbor. The use of dialectism in this sentence is not justified either by the style of the text or by the purpose of the statement.
12. Colloquial and colloquial words.
Colloquial words are included in the lexical system of the literary language, but are used mainly in oral speech, mainly in the sphere everyday communication. Vernacular is a word grammatical form or a turn of predominantly oral speech, used in a literary language, usually for the purpose of a reduced, rough characterization of the subject of speech, as well as simple casual speech containing such words, forms and turns. Colloquial and vernacular vocabulary, in contrast to dialect (regional), is used in the speech of the entire people.
Example: I have a very thin jacket. Thin (colloquial) - holey, spoiled (thin boot). Errors occur in cases where the use of colloquial and colloquial words is not motivated by context.
13. Professional jargon.
Professionalisms act as colloquial equivalents of terms accepted in a certain professional group: typo - a mistake in the speech of journalists; the steering wheel is a steering wheel in the speech of drivers.
But the unmotivated transfer of professionalism into general literary speech is undesirable. Such professionalisms as sewing, tailoring, listening and others spoil literary speech.
In terms of limited use and the nature of expression (jocular, reduced, etc.), professionalisms are similar to jargons and are an integral part of jargons - peculiar social dialects characteristic of professional or age groups of people (jargon of athletes, sailors, hunters, students, schoolchildren). Jargon is everyday vocabulary and phraseology, endowed with reduced expression and characterized by socially limited use.
Example: I wanted to invite guests to a holiday, but the shack does not allow it. Khibara is a house.
14. Phraseologisms.
It must be remembered that phraseological units always have a figurative meaning. Decorating our speech, making it more lively, imaginative, bright, beautiful, phraseological units also give us a lot of trouble - if they are used incorrectly, speech errors appear.
1). Errors in learning the meaning of phraseological units.
a) There is a danger of taking idioms literally, which may be perceived as free associations of words.
b) Errors may be associated with a change in the meaning of a phraseological unit.
Example:
Khlestakov throws pearls before swine all the time, but everyone believes him. Here the phraseology "throw pearls before swine", meaning "to talk about something in vain or prove something to someone who is not able to understand it", is used incorrectly - in the meaning of "to invent, to weave fables."
2). Errors in mastering the form of phraseological units.
a) Grammatical modification of a phraseological unit.
Example:
I'm used to giving myself full reports. The form of the number has been changed here. There is a phraseological unit to give account.
Example:
He constantly sits with his hands folded. Phraseologisms like folded arms, headlong, headlong retain in their composition the old form of the perfective participle with the suffix -a (-я).
Some phraseological units use short forms of adjectives; replacing them with full forms is erroneous.
b) Lexical modification of a phraseological unit.
Example:
It's time for you to take charge of your mind. Most of phraseological units is impenetrable: an additional unit cannot be introduced into the phraseological unit.
Example:
Well, at least hit the wall! Omitting a phraseological unit component is also a speech error.
Example:
Everything returns to normal in a spiral!.. There is a phraseological unit back to normal. Substitution of a word is not allowed.
3). Changing the lexical compatibility of phraseological units.
Example:
These and other questions play a big role in the development of this still young science. There has been a mixture of two stable expressions: it plays a role and it matters. You could say this: questions matter... or questions matter a lot.
15. Clichés and cliches.
Officeisms are words and expressions, the use of which is assigned to the official business style, but they are inappropriate in other styles of speech and are cliches.
Example:
There is a lack of spare parts.
Stamps are hackneyed expressions with a faded lexical meaning and erased expressiveness. Words, phrases and even whole sentences become cliches, which appear as new, stylistically expressive means of speech, but as a result of too frequent use they lose their original imagery.
Example:
A forest of hands went up during the vote.
A type of stamps are universal words. These are words that are used in the most general and vague meanings: question, task, raise, provide, etc. Usually, universal words are accompanied by standard prefixes: work - everyday, level - high, support - warm. There are numerous journalistic cliches (field workers, a city on the Volga), and literary cliches (an exciting image, an angry protest).
Clichés - speech stereotypes, ready-made phrases used as a standard that is easily reproduced in certain conditions and contexts - are constructive units of speech and, despite frequent use, retain their semantics. Clichés are used in official business documents (summit meeting); in scientific literature (requires proof); in journalism (our own correspondent reports from); in different situations of everyday speech (Hello! Goodbye! Who's the last one?).
III. Factual errors
Violation of the requirement for the correct transmission of factual material causes factual errors.
Factual errors are a distortion of the situation depicted in the statement or its individual details, for example: “In the winter forest the cuckoo crowed loudly.” or “The merchants Bobchinsky and Dobchinsky enter.”
Factual errors can be detected if the reader of the work knows the factual side of the matter and can evaluate each fact from the standpoint of its reliability. The reason for factual errors is insufficient knowledge of the events described, poverty life experience, incorrect assessment of the actions and characters of the heroes.
In the presentation, factual errors include various types of inaccuracies:
1) errors in indicating the place and time of the event;
2) in conveying the sequence of actions, cause-and-effect relationships, etc., for example: instead of “Kirovsky Prospekt” - in the work “Kyiv Prospekt” or “Kirovsky Village”.
In an essay, factual errors are
1) distortion of life's truth;
2) inaccurate reproduction of book sources;
3) proper names;
4) dates;
5) places of events,
for example: “Chadsky”, “at Nagulny and Razmetnoye”.
Examples of typical factual errors.
“With the image of Onegin, Pushkin opened a gallery of “superfluous people” in Russian literature: Oblomov, Pechorin, Bazarov. A superfluous person must have two qualities: reject the ideals of society and not see the meaning of his existence.” In the above example, Oblomov and Bazarov clearly fall out of the proposed chain.
"The literature of classicism (Lomonosov, Derzhavin, Fonvizin, Karamzin, etc.) had a great influence on the work of A. S. Griboedov." There are two mistakes here at once. First: Fonvizin really “had a great influence” on Woe from Wit, but it is hardly possible to talk about the influence of Lomonosov and Derzhavin. The author confuses facts and types of fiction. The second factual inaccuracy is that Karamzin is a representative of the culture of sentimentalism.
IV. Logical errors
Violation of the sequence (logic) of presentation leads to the appearance of logical errors.
Logical errors consist of breaking rules logical thinking. This type of error includes the following shortcomings in the content of the work:
1) violation of the sequence of utterances;
2) lack of connection between parts and sentences;
3) unjustified repetition of a previously expressed thought;
4) fragmentation of one micro-theme by another micro-theme;
5) disproportionality of parts of the statement;
6) lack of necessary parts;
7) rearrangement of parts of the text (if it is not due to the assignment for presentation);
8) unjustified substitution of the person from whom the story is told (for example, first from the first, then from the third person).
V. Grammar errors
Grammatical errors are non-compliance with the norms of word and form formation, the norms of syntactic connections between words in a phrase and a sentence.
There are two types of grammatical errors:
1. Word formation.
The structure of the word is broken: “ruthlessness”, “immortality”, “instead”, “publicism”.
2. Morphological.
Errors associated with non-normative formation of word forms.
This type of error includes:
a) errors in the formation of forms of nouns: “obleki”, “English”, “two banners”, “on the bridge”, “Grinev lived as an undergrowth”, “He was not afraid of dangers and risks”, “They built a big swing in the yard”.
b) errors in the formation of adjective forms: “One brother was richer than the other,” “This book is more interesting.”
c) errors in the formation of pronouns: “I went to him,” “their house.”
d) errors in the formation of the verb: “He never made a mistake,” “Mom always rejoices at guests,” “Having walked out into the middle of the room, he spoke,” “A smiling child was sitting in the far corner.”
e) incorrect construction of an aspectual pair, most often a paired imperfective verb: “My brother and I saw off all the extra branches, put the tree in the middle of the room and decorate it.”
VI. Syntax errors
Syntactic errors consist of incorrect construction of phrases, violation of the structure of simple, complicated and complex sentences.
Errors in the structure of phrases:
1. Violation of agreement with the main word in gender, number and case of the dependent word, expressed by an adjective, participle, ordinal number, pronoun: “This summer I was in the steppe Trans-Volga region.”
2. Impaired control.
Errors in unprepositioned management (wrong choice of preposition): “If you touch a birch tree on a hot day, you will feel the cool trunk.”
3. Wrong choice of case with a correctly chosen preposition: “He looked like a deathly tired man.”
4. Omission of a preposition: “After a hasty lunch, I sat at the helm and drove (?) to the field.”
5. Using the unnecessary pretext “Thirst for fame.”
6. Omission of the dependent component of the phrase: “Getting into the hot cabin again, turning the steering wheel shiny from the palms again, (?) driving.”
Errors in the structure and meaning of the sentence:
1. Violation of the connection between the subject and the predicate: “But neither youth nor summer last forever,” “The sun had already set when we returned.”
2. Lack of semantic completeness of the sentence, violation of its boundaries: “Once during the war. A shell hit a poplar.”
3. Syntactic ambiguity: “Their (the girls’) dream came true, they (the fishermen) returned.”
4. Violation of the type-temporal correlation of verbs in the sentence: “Grinev sees Pugachev getting into the carriage.”
Errors in a simple two-part sentence:
Subject:
- Pronominal duplication of the subject: “Children sitting on an old boat with its keel overturned, they are waiting for their father.”
- Violation of agreement between the subject and the pronoun replacing the subject in another sentence: “Apparently, there is a storm at sea, so it is full of dangers.”
Predicate:
- Errors in the construction of the predicate: “Everyone was happy.”
- Violation of the agreement of the predicate in gender and number with the subject, expressed by a collective noun, quantitative-nominal phrase, interrogative and indefinite pronoun: “My mother and I stayed at home,” “A sheaf of rays of the sun entered the room.”
- Pronominal duplication of the addition: “Many books can be read several times.”
Definition:
- Incorrect use of an inconsistent definition: “On the right hang a lamp and my portrait from the kindergarten.”
- A conglomeration of agreed and not agreed upon definitions relating to one member of the sentence: “The huge, wonderful world of life in our country and our peers opens up in millions of books.”
- Incorrect choice of morphological form of the circumstance: “I teach my lessons on the table” (at the table).
Errors in one-part sentences:
1. The use of two-part structures in place of one-part ones.
2. Using an adverbial phrase in an impersonal sentence: “When I saw the dog, I felt sorry for it.”
Sentences with homogeneous members:
1. Using different parts of speech as homogeneous members of a sentence: “I like the room because it is bright, large, and clean.”
2. Inclusion in a series of homogeneous terms of words denoting heterogeneous concepts: “When it’s spring and a clear day, the sun illuminates my whole room.”
3. Incorrect use of coordinating conjunctions to connect homogeneous members: “The boy was big-faced, but serious.”
4. Incorrect attachment of logically heterogeneous secondary members to one main member: “There are books in the closet, newspapers and glassware on the shelves.”
5. Errors in coordinating homogeneous subjects with the predicate: “Anxiety and melancholy froze in her eyes.”
6. Violations in the area of homogeneous predicates:
a) the use of different types of predicates as homogeneous: “The sea after the storm is calm, gentle and plays with the rays of the sun”;
b) violation of the uniform design of compound nominal predicates: the use of different case forms of the nominal part of homogeneous compound nominal predicates: “Their father was an experienced fisherman and a brave sailor”; adding an addition to homogeneous verbal predicates, which is controlled by only one of the predicates: “Everyone is really waiting and worried about the soldiers”; the use of short and long forms of adjectives and participles in the nominal part: “My room has recently been renovated: whitewashed and painted.”
7. Association of members and units different offers as homogeneous: “Mushrooms grow under the birch tree, berries grow, snowdrops bloom in the spring.” “The children were waiting for their father and when his boat would appear.”
Sentences with introductory words and introductory constructions:
1. Incorrect choice of introductory word: “The girls peered intensely into the distance of the sea: a boat would probably appear on the horizon.”
2. Using an introductory word that leads to ambiguity: “According to the fishermen, there was a storm at night, but now it’s calm.”
3. Using the introductory sentence as an independent one: “A book is a source of knowledge. As many say.”
Offers with separate members:
1. Violation of word order in sentences with participial phrases.
- Separation of the participial phrase from the word being defined: “But again a misfortune happened to the tree: its low branches were cut off.”
- Inclusion of the defined word in the participial phrase: “Girls have their eyes fixed on the sea.”
2. Violation of the rules for constructing participial phrases.
- Construction of a participial phrase according to the model subordinate clause: “The painting shows a girl who has just gotten up.”
- Using a participial phrase instead of an adverbial phrase: “And every time we returned back, we sat down under a poplar tree and rested.”
3. Errors in sentences with isolated circumstances expressed by the adverbial phrase: “Resting in a chair, the picture “March” hangs in front of me.
Methods of transmitting direct speech. Direct and indirect speech:
1. Combining direct speech and the author’s words: “Before the war, my father told me: “Take care of the tree and went to the front.”
2. The use of direct speech without the author’s words: “The girls saw the longboat: “Dad!”
3. Direct mixing indirect speech: “Grandfather said that in childhood they had this law: on birthdays we gave only what we made with our own hands.”
4. Errors when introducing quotes: “K. Paustovsky said that “A person who loves and knows how to read, happy man".
Complex sentences:
1. Violation of the logical-grammatical connection between the parts of a complex sentence: “My father did not forget this story for a long time, but he died.”
2. Use of a pronoun in the second part of a complex sentence, leading to ambiguity: “May hopes come true and they will return.”
3. Errors in using complex conjunctions:
a) connective - to connect parts of a complex sentence in the absence of adversative relations between them: “Yesterday there was a storm, and today everything was calm.”
b) adversatives - to connect parts of a complex sentence in the absence of adversative relations between them: “There is a birch tree growing in our yard, but buds are also swelling on it”;
c) double and repeated: “Either a bird has landed on the water, or the wreckage of a broken boat is floating on the sea”;
d) unjustified repetition of conjunctions: “And suddenly the girls saw a small black dot, and they had hope”;
e) unsuccessful choice of alliances: “Mitrasha was ten years old, but her sister was older.”
Complex sentences:
1. Inconsistency between the type of subordinate clause and the meaning of the main one: “But they will still wait for their father, since the fishermen must be waited on the shore.”
2. Using composition and subordination to connect parts in a complex sentence: “If a person does not play sports, he ages quickly.”
3. Making structures heavier by “stringing” subordinate clauses: “The sail appeared in the sea as happy news that the fishermen were all right and that the girls would soon be able to hug their parents, who were delayed at sea because there was a strong storm.”
4. Omission of a necessary demonstrative word: “Mom always scolds me for throwing my things around.”
5. Unjustified use of a demonstrative word: “I have an assumption that the fishermen were delayed by the storm.”
6. Incorrect use of conjunctions and allied words when choosing them correctly:
a) the use of conjunctions and allied words in the middle of a subordinate clause: “There is a TV on the nightstand in the room, on which I watch entertainment programs after school”;
b) violation of the agreement of the conjunctive word in the subordinate clause with the replaced or attributive word in the main sentence: “On two shelves there are fiction, which I use in preparation for lessons.”
7. Use of the same type of subordinate clauses with sequential subordination: “Walking along the shore, I saw two girls sitting on an overturned boat, which was lying upside down on the shore.”
8. Using a subordinate clause as an independent clause: “The girls are worried about their relatives. That’s why they look so sadly into the distance.”
Non-union complex sentence:
1. Violation of the unity of construction of homogeneous parts in a non-union complex sentence: “The picture shows: early morning, the sun is just rising.”
2. Decomposition of parts of a non-union complex sentence into independent sentences: “The girls are dressed simply. They are wearing summer cotton dresses. The eldest has a scarf on her head.”
3. Simultaneous use of non-union and allied connections: “The girls’ clothes are simple: the older ones with a scarf on their heads, in a blue skirt and gray blouse, the younger ones without a scarf, in a purple dress and a dark blue blouse.”
Complex sentence with various types connections:
1. Violation of the order of parts of the sentence: “The waves are still foaming, but they calm down near the shore; the closer to the horizon, the darker the sea; and therefore the girls have hope that their father will return.”
2. Using pronouns that create ambiguity: "We see that the girl's bed is not made, and she confirms that the girl just got up."
Recently, with each new legislative act adopted, the rules of the Russian language are simplified, and this simplification sometimes reaches the point of absurdity. It would seem, speak as you hear. However, lexical errors associated with incorrect use of words and substitution of meanings are still striking. It is worth considering this topic in more detail and trying to improve your speech.
Lexis (lexicology) is a section of the science of language aimed at studying the vocabulary of a language from various aspects: changing the meaning of words, their origin, implementation, etc.
Lexical norms mean the use of words in the right context, taking into account their meaning; choosing appropriate words depending on the situation in which the subject is, and so on. Violations of lexical norms are found everywhere, both in speech and speech. For a better understanding, it is necessary to turn to practice. Let's look at the main lexical errors.
- Violation of lexical compatibility
The girl paid a lot of care to her brother, who fell ill with the flu a week ago. You can only pay attention, but care should be spoken of using the verb to show.
Such lexical errors occur often when people “pull out” a verb from an established phrase and use it where it is inappropriate.
There is a triangular bag hanging in the gym. In terms of its meaning, a pear a priori cannot be triangular.
2. Omission of a word, which may result in loss of meaning
My sister's character, like my father's, has some oddities. Here it is necessary to clarify, as well as the character of the father, otherwise it can be argued that the oddities are inherent specifically in the father. Of course, in speech such use is acceptable, however, the author in this situation had in mind the characters.
3. Verbosity. Such a violation should be divided into its component parts:
Meaningless repetition of a word
Yesterday I went to the store. I bought tomatoes at the store, but when I went home from the store, I remembered that I didn’t buy potatoes and beets. When I returned to the store, I found that the store was closed.
The word “shop” could be successfully replaced by the pronouns he, there, there, or various synonyms.
Tautology
They don't like strangers here.
At first it seemed to me that there should be a comma at the beginning of the sentence.
Pleonasm - the presence of extra clarifying words in the text
There are many pictures in this book.
Let's look at some more lexical errors.
4. Inappropriate use of a word of foreign origin
There was something mesmerizing about the confrontation between the two fighters that I couldn’t take my eyes off. Such a duet is worthy of admiration.
The concept of a duet is applied to two participants who jointly carry out some kind of activity - singers, actors, etc. Here we are talking about rivalry.
5. Misinterpretation of paronyms and, as a result, substitution of one word for another.
He gave a lunch of silence. Obviously, the sentence must contain the word vow.
Yesterday we went to an idle dinner together. Life can be idle, but dinner can be festive.
Thus, we have examined common lexical errors, examples of which were discussed above. Of course, this list is not exhaustive - you can remember archaisms, neologisms, antonyms and much more, but I wanted to dwell in more detail on the popular mistakes that everyone hears.
Violating lexical norms should not become a habit; it is necessary to move away from this state of affairs. There is a well-known folk and proven method of improving speech, which requires only desire and time. Classic. Yes, exactly, read the Russian classics with their turns and twists, thereby minimizing lexical errors in your speech.
The semantic accuracy of speech is one of the main conditions that ensures the practical and often legal value of a business text. An incorrectly chosen word will distort the meaning of the message, create the possibility of interpreting this or that phrase in two ways and give the text an undesirable tone, so it is important to use individual words and phrases correctly.
Paronyms are similar-sounding words with the same root that differ in meaning: guaranteed - guaranteed, place - place, inhale - sigh. Mixing paronyms is one of the most flagrant violations of the norms of literary speech.
Synonyms are words with the same or very similar meaning: future - coming, hurry - hurry, build - build. Inattention to the shades of meaning of synonyms and ignorance of traditional norms of lexical compatibility can lead to semantic errors.
Pleonasm (from the Greek - excess) is a partial coincidence of the meanings of the words that form the phrase: memorable souvenir (souvenir - a keepsake), joint cooperation (cooperation - joint problem solving, joint work). The presence of pleonasms in a text is usually considered as a speech defect, an inability to express a thought accurately and concisely.
A violation of the norms of literary correctness and culture of speech is also tautology - semantic repetitions that arise in cases where words of the same root are adjacent in a sentence: The benefits of using mounted units...; The following facts should be considered...; This phenomenon fully manifested in the conditions. Tautological repetitions make the phrase dissonant. In addition, they make it difficult to perceive, since they attract special attention to themselves.
Homonyms are words that have the same sound but differ in meaning: onion - “weapon” and onion - “plant”; marriage is “matrimony” and marriage is “flaw, defect, deficiency.”
All-Union classifiers of technical and economic information and other regulatory and technical documents use standardized terminology.
Special vocabulary also includes professionalisms. Professionalism arises mainly in two cases:
- 1) when the specialty or type of activity does not have its own developed terminology (for example, hunting, fishing, games, etc.);
- 2) as colloquial, informal substitutes for terms; for example, in living speech, officially accepted terminological combinations are very often simplified: cardan device - cardan, transmission mechanism - transmission, etc.; Russian versions of borrowed terms often appear: ophthalmologist - ophthalmologist, transplantation - transplantation, etc.
Professionalisms are usually generally understood and are in common use within a particular specialty. However, their use in official texts is undesirable.
Lexical compatibility of words- this is the ability of a word to connect with other words of the context without violating the semantic and grammatical patterns of word combinations. Lexical compatibility is determined by the language of the possibility of combining words within a phrase or connecting a subject with a predicate. An extreme case of the dependence of words on such a possibility can be considered phraseological units of language.
The deliberate violation of semantic or grammatical patterns of word combinations underlies some stylistic figures and tropes.
An unintentional, accidental violation of lexical compatibility leads to a speech error. A common case of violation of lexical compatibility is a construction in which parts of synonymous phrases are mistakenly combined: play a role (play a role and make a difference), take action (take action and take action).
Lexical redundancy is the common name for two stylistic phenomena: pleonasm and tautology, associated with the presence in a sentence of two words instead of one.
Lexical redundancy is used as a stylistic device for reinforcement: see with your own eyes, hear with your own ears.
Pleonasm- this is lexical redundancy that arises due to duplication of the lexical meaning of one word by another, whole or any part of it: interior interior(the interior already has the meaning of internal), stand idle.
There are two types of pleonasms. Pleonasm is obligatory, or structurally determined, which is not a stylistic error and is widely represented in the language: go down the mountain(duplication of preposition and prefix), never read it.
Pleonasm– a stylistic error in which unnecessary, redundant words are combined into a phrase or sentence. PLEONASM(Greek – excess).
1. A means of lexical expressiveness, based on the use in a sentence or text of words that are close in meaning, creating semantic redundancy.
Pleonasm is found in folklore: once upon a time, sadness-longing, path-path, sea-okiyan. This device is also widely used in fiction, usually for the purpose of specifying the details of the story or enhancing emotions and assessments: Extremely strange indeed! - said the official, - the place completely smooth like a freshly baked pancake. Yes, incredibly smooth! (N. Gogol, “The Nose”); The old fear seized him again everything, from head to toe (F. Dostoevsky, “Crime and Punishment”); – I didn't see you the whole week, I didn't hear you so long. I I passionately want, I thirsty your voice. Speak.(A. Chekhov, “Ionych”).
2. A type of lexical error associated with a violation of the norms of lexical compatibility, when words that are unnecessary from a semantic point of view are used in a phrase or sentence. For example, in the sentence They ensured the rhythmic and uninterrupted operation of the enterprise definitions express similar meanings; here one of them is sufficient. Author's inscription on the cover of the book Dedicated to my dad – Sergei Mikhailovich pleonastic; enough Dedicated to my dad...
Typical examples of non-normative pleonasm are phrases in which the meaning of one word repeats the meaning of another: more important (more unnecessary because more important means "more important"), first premiere(enough premiere– “the first performance of a play, film or performance of a musical work”), atmospheric air(enough air– “a mixture of gases that forms the Earth’s atmosphere”), ultimately(Right in the end or enough eventually), go back(verb return indicates movement backwards, in the opposite direction), import from abroad(enough import– “import from abroad”).
Some pleonastic phrases have become entrenched in the language and are not considered erroneous, For example: go down, go up, time period, exhibition exhibit(Latin exhibitus means "on display"), people's democracy (democracy translated from Greek language"People power").
In fiction and journalism, non-normative lexical redundancy can act as a means of speech characterization of characters: – Here you are laugh And bare your teeth, - said Vasya, - and I really, Marya Vasilievna, warmly love you adore And I love (M. Zoshchenko, “Love”).
Tautology- this is lexical redundancy, in which words with the same root are repeated within a phrase or combination of subject and predicate in a sentence: soon the fairy tale is told, but not soon the deed is done.
The tautology is humorously demonstrated in the program “Baby Monitor” in the following poem:
I prefer autumn most of all,
When everything bears fruit,
And in the hayfield they cut hay with a scythe,
And there is butter on the table.
Often tautological repetitions are not a stylistic error, but the only possible characteristic of an object (salt, life to live). Tautological combinations of words are found in folk poetic works, in proverbs and sayings: friendship is friendship, and service is service.
Unintentional tautology indicates an inability to use the synonymous richness of the language, that is, it is a stylistic error.
Lexical repetitions– stylistically inappropriate repetition of the same words: I study at a technical school. After graduating from technical school, I will work in the gas field.
Lexical deficiency– a stylistic error consisting of omitting a necessary component of a phrase: I am deeply concerned about this question. Lexical deficiency is sometimes associated with a linguistic phenomenon called acquisition: he drinks ( alcoholic drinks), brother serves (in the army). But with lexical insufficiency, such semantic contraction does not occur, and the fulfillment of the missing component of the phrase remains necessary.
Tautology, pleonasm, and inappropriate repetitions of words make the text dissonant and make it difficult to perceive. The reasons for such errors are common: poverty of speech, inability to use synonyms, ignorance of the lexical meaning of words, as well as underdeveloped “speech hearing”: the speaker does not notice that he is inappropriately using words that are close in meaning or have the same root.
The use of phraseological units in speech obeys historically established rules established by tradition. From a stylistic point of view, phraseological units of language are heterogeneous. Some of them have a colloquial or colloquial emotional-expressive coloring and therefore are not used in purely book styles (official business and scientific). Other shades of bookishness refer to high vocabulary and are often included in poeticisms.
As a language game, one encounters the deliberate destruction of a phraseological unit, the replacement of one of the components in order to give a different, often ironic meaning: The one who shoots first laughs well.
Unintentional destruction of phraseological units is a stylistic error.
TAUTOLOGY(Greek - the same and - word) - a type of pleonasm; the use of cognate words in a sentence or text.
Tautology is found in proverbs and sayings: Friendship is friendship , A service by service; Live life– don’t cross the field; Free will ; in phraseological units: walk around, jam-packed, eat .
Expressively colored tautological combinations are characteristic of folklore: Soon the fairy tale takes its toll, not soon the job is done; let's sit, bitter grief .
The deliberate use of cognate words serves as a means of lexical expressiveness in fiction and journalism: “ Gorky with fur mine I'll laugh "(N. Gogol); " How mind is smart, How business wise, // How fear is terrible, How darkness is dark!// How life is alive! How death is fatal! // How youth young girl ! "(Z. Ezrohi), " Law There is law "(from the newspaper).
Tautology is lexical error, if the use of cognate words is not justified by stylistic purposes and is random: put together, dance a dance, have a sportsmanlike attitude towards sports, confirm a statement. Usually an unintentional tautology is said like this: oil oil.
