Russian culture of the 15th and 17th centuries briefly. Development of the culture of the peoples of Russia in the 15th–17th centuries. Strengthening secular elements in Russian culture of the 17th century. V. Information about homework
In the 14th–15th centuries, a centralized state with its capital in Moscow emerged in the northeast of Rus'. If in the West at this time society is freed from the influence of the church, then in Moscow, on the contrary, this influence increases, having a great impact on the life of the state and daily life of people. Religious asceticism in the name of Christ and society became the social ideal. Saint Sergius of Radonezh and Prince Dmitry Donskoy became the spiritual symbols of Moscow. Therefore, the medieval culture of Rus' is of a religious nature.
Since 1547, with the crowning of Ivan IV, Rus' began to be called Russia. In 1480, Moscow's dependence on the Golden Horde was eliminated. But the influence of eastern culture on Russian lands did not weaken. Ivan IV did not accept the European type of secular state. His ideal is an unlimited monarchy, where power is sanctioned by the church. The oprichnina served this purpose. It was the most unique cultural and psychological event in the history of Moscow Rus'. Oprichnina is unique in world practice, atypical for Russia political system. The new power was based on the rule of force, and not on blood, moral or spiritual superiority.
Big event V culture XVI century - the emergence of Russian printing. Its beginning is considered to be 1564, when the first dated book “The Apostle” was published. It was published by Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets. Over the entire century, 20 books were printed, so the handwritten book will still occupy a leading place in a hundred years.
There was a process of accumulation of theoretical and practical knowledge. Fortresses, temples, and churches were built, which required strict mathematical calculations. The first manuals on mathematics and geometry were written. Technology developed. The Russians were the first to invent pile drivers for drilling wells for salt extraction. Outstanding hydraulic structures were created in the Solovetsky Monastery. A system of canals connected dozens of lakes. Mills and hammers were driven by water, a stone dam with numerous bridges connected the islands.
Icon painting is receiving special development. Its heyday dates back to the 14th–15th centuries and begins in Novgorod. Theophan the Greek, invited from Byzantium, worked here. He painted the Church of the Savior on Ilyin. The Greek is a brilliant colorist, fluent in writing techniques and the mastery of tonal painting. His images were distinguished by special expressiveness, dynamics, sincerity, and impulse. Together with Andrei Rublev, he painted the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral in Moscow. The highest rise of Russian icon painting is associated with the work of the brilliant Russian artist Andrei Rublev. He worked at the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. The famous “Trinity”, which became one of the pinnacles of world art, embodied the main features and principles of Rublev’s painting style. The art of medieval Rus' was of a religious nature, like all culture.
The history of medieval Russian culture ended in the 17th century. Elements of modern culture were emerging. It was characterized by the process of formation of secular culture. In literature, this was manifested in the formation of a democratic, secular trend; in architecture - in bringing together the appearance of religious and civil buildings; in science - in the growing interest in generalizing practical experience; in painting - in the destruction of iconographic canons and the emergence of realistic tendencies. The increasing complexity of city life, the growth of the state apparatus, and the development of international relations placed new demands on education. The literacy level in the 17th century increased significantly and in various strata it was: among landowners - 65%, merchants - 96%, peasants - 15%. In the middle of the 17th century, public and private schools were created, where they studied foreign languages, other items. In 1687, the first higher education institution in Russia was opened in Moscow. educational institution– Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy for the training of higher clergy and civil service officials. It was led by the Greek brothers Likhud, who graduated from the University of Padua in Italy. Representatives of various classes and nationalities studied here. Handwritten textbooks and self-instructions appeared, and books on mathematics were printed.
In the practice of the 17th century, knowledge in the field of mechanics was widely used (in construction, in the first manufactories). Noticeable changes have occurred in medicine. Folk healing continues to develop, and the foundations of state medicine are laid. The first pharmacies and hospitals were opened. There have also been changes in the humanities. The layer of consumers and authors of historical works has grown. In the 17th century, old forms of historical writings (chronicles, chronographs) gradually lost their meaning and disappeared. New types of works are appearing, in which more developed psychological characteristics of the rulers of Russia are given, and broader pictures of the historical past are created. This is the “Synopsis” of I. Gisel - the first textbook of Russian history.
4. Age of Enlightenment in Russia. The meaning and essence of Peter I’s reforms in the field of culture.
The 18th century opens a new stage in the development of Russian culture. This period is characterized by the formation of national schools in art (painting, music, architecture), which indicates the active formation national culture. A distinctive feature of the new culture was secularism, especially in the artistic sphere, and openness to contacts with other peoples. In the 18th century, the ideological and artistic life of society became more complicated, and for the first time the government pursued a targeted policy in the field of education and enlightenment. The city becomes the center of the new culture, where sociocultural institutions such as schools, museums, theaters, and libraries emerge.
The beginning of the 18th century was marked by the reforms of Peter I, which were designed to bridge the gap in the level of development of Russia and Europe. The reforms affected almost all spheres of society. Their content was a decisive shift from the Middle Ages to modern times and the Europeanization of all areas of life:
1. There was a breakdown of old government agencies, replacing them with new ones, a modern administrative-bureaucratic apparatus took shape: Peter created collegiums, prototypes of modern ministries, and instead of the Boyar Duma, he created the highest advisory body under the sovereign - the Senate, which includes 9 people. When appointing to the Senate, only business qualities were taken into account. A new class of society was also emerging, which determined the cultural image of Russia for 200 years: the nobility received privileges for public service and duties to the Fatherland - activities for the benefit of the Motherland in the military, diplomatic or bureaucratic spheres.
2. An important place in the transformations of Peter I was occupied by church reform, as a result of which the previously relatively independent church came under the power of the state. By the end of the 17th century, the church acquired material wealth and even power (it owned vast lands with assigned peasants), but ceased to be the bearer Orthodox beginnings in the state: rudeness, money-grubbing, and ignorance reigned among the priests; monasteries lost their educational significance. In addition, the church was against changes in the camp. Therefore, Peter I carries out secularization (reducing the power of the church over society). The church gradually submits to the state, and the clergy turns into an estate with state responsibilities and tasks. Thus, during sermons, priests had to defend the reforms carried out by the government, help in finding unreliable persons, violate the secret of confession (under penalty of death!) if a believer was plotting high treason, an attempt on the life of the Tsar, etc. The abolition of patriarchal control of the church and the creation of the Holy Synod (a body consisting of the most respected and eminent representatives of the clergy) finally confirmed the subordinate position of the church in Russia. The Synod was directly subordinate to the sovereign, who concentrated both secular and spiritual power in his hands.
3. Replacement of folk rituals and traditions with secular ones, including in the field of fashion, forms of communication, and household rules. These changes affected primarily the upper stratum of society. So, after several centuries of seclusion, Russian women became hostesses of balls and evenings, became acquainted with European art, and put on foreign dresses.
4. The most significant reforms were in the field of education. A system of secular schools is being created. Pushkar, navigation, and medical schools were founded in Moscow. A maritime and engineering academies and a school of translators were established in St. Petersburg. In addition to the state and vocational schools, private, comprehensive schools are emerging, and the practice of training young people abroad is spreading. The disadvantage of the emerging education system was that peasants were not accepted into these schools. Studying was equated to service, students received food money (scholarship). The more the young man progressed in his studies, the more he received. Escaping from school was punishable by death. The Petrovsky school was created as a professional, technical school, with the goal of training personnel in those areas that were needed by the state at this stage. Peter himself knew 14 professions: bombardier (artilleryman), carpenter, sailor, blacksmith, dentist, etc. By the end of Peter's reign, almost every major city had two schools: theological (for the children of the clergy) and the secular (for clerks and soldiers). In noble families it predominates home schooling. Education in Russia is becoming class-based, higher education gradually becoming the privilege of the nobility.
5. A consequence of the development of education is a growing interest in scientific knowledge, especially technical knowledge. The penetration of Western educational and rationalistic concepts into Russia created the basis for the development of a qualitatively new natural science. Science is gradually becoming part of secular culture. A number of inventions and technical innovations appear. Thus, mechanic and inventor A.N. Nartov creates a number of instruments and machines, including the world's first screw-cutting lathe. V.P. Tatishchev makes improvements in mining, Ya.V. Bruce - in the military. A logical result of the development of science and technology is the opening of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, which meant the formalization of science as social institution, creating a base for theoretical, fundamental science in Russia.
6. Reform of the army and navy. The introduction of conscription, which required military service for 25 years, had a difficult impact on the lives of peasants, but made it possible to create an experienced, combat-ready army in which a simple soldier could become an officer and continue his career. During the 25 years of Peter's reign, 48 were built battleships and 800 galleys, which made Russia a maritime power.
7. The results of Peter I's reforms were contradictory and ambiguous. As a result of all the changes in the political system Russian state The establishment of an absolute monarchy was completed: centralized power was strengthened, a regular army was created, the church was included in the state apparatus, and a bureaucracy was created. The absolutist state needed secular culture. The periodical press was a powerful means of educating the people. The first printed newspaper in Russia was Vedomosti, published in 1703. The growth of printing contributed to the development of the book trade. In 1714, the first library was opened, which became the basis of the library of the Academy of Sciences. It was available for free visiting. In 1719, the first Russian museum, the Kunstkamera, opened. The logical result of reforms in the field of education and science was the opening of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg in 1725. Instead of the old chronology - “from the Creation of the world” - from January 1, 1700, the chronology “from the Nativity of Christ” was introduced. There was a custom to celebrate New Year: arrange fireworks, decorate Christmas trees. New form communication became assemblies (balls, receptions).
8. An important feature of the culture of modern times has been its openness and ability to contact the cultures of other peoples, which was the result of a policy aimed at undermining national and religious isolation. Relations with Western countries are expanding. Contacts with Europe contributed to the penetration of humanistic and rationalist teachings into Russia. The ideology of absolutism began to be reinforced by the ideas of rationalism and the European Enlightenment. The New Age is characterized by such processes as accelerating the pace of development, increasing complexity social development generally. The process of differentiation begins, the emergence of new branches of culture: science, theater, portraiture, poetry, journalism. A distinctive feature of this period is the emergence of authorship, although much of the culture still continued to remain anonymous.
9. The most decisive turn towards the Europeanization of Russian culture occurred during the reign of Catherine II. Her reign marked the beginning of the era of enlightened absolutism, which lasted until 1815. The era was characterized by an attempt to carry out liberal reforms while maintaining unlimited autocracy. The ideology of “enlightened absolutism” was formed as a system of socio-political views based on the belief in a “sage on the throne” who rules the country according to reasonable, fair laws and strives for the good of his subjects. Catherine decided to pay special attention to the education of “new people”, morally perfect, who would raise their children in the same spirit, which would lead to changes in society. It was assumed that new person will be brought up in an exclusively Western spirit. Much attention was paid to humanitarian education. Orphanages appeared in Moscow and St. Petersburg, closed institutes, and cadet corps. Main public schools are opening in 25 provincial cities. For a long time, all schools and gymnasiums used the book “On the Positions of Man and Citizen,” published by order of Catherine II, as a textbook, which was a code of moral and social rules of human behavior.
Particularly striking evidence of the turnaround in the value system of the 18th century is the architecture of St. Petersburg and portraiture. In their works, the masters sought to convey a commitment to the orderly, admiration for the power of the mind. Architects reflect this in the appearance of the city, artists - in the image of a person. The new capital was founded in May 1703. In the field of urban planning, there was a transition from the medieval radial-ring construction scheme (as in Moscow) to a regular layout, which was characterized by geometric correctness and symmetry in the development of streets. Foreign architects were invited to successfully solve problems in the field of urban planning. By the beginning of the 19th century, the city acquired a “strict, slender appearance.” This is a great merit of foreign architects - J.-B. Leblon, D. Trezzini, D. Quarenghi and representatives of the Russian architectural school V. Bazhenov, I. Starov, M. Kazakov, V. Rastrelli.
In the 18th century, the prerequisites were created for the formation of the Russian national language, there is a rapprochement literary language with colloquial, the process of formation of new dialects stops. The Russian colloquial language is being formed. The Moscow dialect serves as a model. In the 90s, N. Karamzin carried out a reform of the literary language. This made it possible to attract a wide range of people to reading. In the middle of the 18th century, classicism became the dominant trend in all artistic culture. The first national tragedies and comedies appear (A. Sumarokov, D. Fonvizin). The most striking poetic works were created by G. Derzhavin. At the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, a new direction in literature was formed - sentimentalism, associated with the work of N. Karamzin and A. Radishchev. Cultural ties with other countries are expanding. A more active lifestyle and the popularity of travel led to the development of such literary genres as writing, travel writing, memoirs, and diary entries.
The country's social and scientific thought intensified. In the 60-70s. In the 18th century, satirical journalism became widespread. Works “serving to correct morals” were published on the pages of magazines, i.e. aimed at educating worthy members of society. During the same period of time, natural science was rapidly developing in Russia, academic expeditions led by prominent scientists were carried out. The materials on zoology, botany, ethnography, and archeology collected during these expeditions contributed to the scientific understanding of the nature and culture of our country. Published in 1745 "Atlas Russian Empire "was of global importance: by the middle of the 18th century, only France had such an atlas. By the end of the century, geographical knowledge was spreading.
A peculiar phenomenon of the cultural life of Russia in the second half of the 18th century was the serf theater. Some of the serf theaters (for example, Count N.P. Sheremetyev in Ostankino, Prince N.B. Yusupov in Arkhangelsk, Count Kamensky in Orel) were widely known among theater lovers. Many talented actors and musicians performed on their stage; P.I. was famous for her acting in the theater. Kovaleva-Zhemchugova, famous actor Shchepkin long years was a serf.
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-1.jpg" alt=">Culture of Russia XV - XVII centuries">!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-2.jpg" alt="> Goal: To identify new phenomena in Russian culture of the end"> Цель: Выявить новые явления в русской культуре конца XV - XVII веков!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-3.jpg" alt="> ARCHITECTURE temple civil serf">!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-4.jpg" alt="> ARCHITECTURE Fortress architecture Moscow Kremlin back">!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-5.jpg" alt="> ARCHITECTURE Temple architecture Church of the Deposition of the Robe "> ARCHITECTURE Temple architecture Church of the Deposition of the Robe Bell tower of Ivan the Great Assumption Cathedral Annunciation Cathedral Architects: Aristotle Fioravanti Aleviz Fryazin Bon Fryazin Petrok Maly Bazhen Ogurtsov
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-6.jpg" alt="> ARCHITECTURE Temple architecture Tent style"> АРХИТЕКТУРА Храмовая архитектура Шатровый стиль архитектуры Церковь Вознесения Никольская церковь в селе Коломенском Лявля Архангельской бласти Шатровый стиль архитектуры – вид архитектурного сооружения, завершающегося высокой многогранной пирамидой!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-7.jpg" alt="> ARCHITECTURE Temple architecture Tent style"> АРХИТЕКТУРА Храмовая архитектура Шатровый стиль архитектуры Церковь Рождества Богородицы в Путинках Церковь Покрова Богородицы на Красной площади 1652 г. – запрет на строительство храмов шатрового стиля!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-8.jpg" alt="> ARCHITECTURE Temple architecture boxy multi-domed tiered">!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-9.jpg" alt="> ARCHITECTURE Temple architecture Baroque architectural style"> АРХИТЕКТУРА Храмовая архитектура Архитектурный стиль барокко Барокко – (от ит. barocco – причудливый, вычурный) – это художественный стиль, отличающийся пышностью, причудливостью деталей. Храм Покрова Богородицы в Филях – усадебная церковь Нарышкина Л. К. назад!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-10.jpg" alt="> ARCHITECTURE Civil architecture Wooden palace of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in"> АРХИТЕКТУРА Гражданская архитектура Деревянный дворец царя Алексея Михайловича в селе Коломенском!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-11.jpg" alt="> Civil architecture of the Chamber of the Duma clerk Kirillov"> Гражданская архитектура Палаты думного дьяка Кириллова Каменные палаты в Москве Дом купца Коробова в Калуге!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-12.jpg" alt="> ARCHITECTURE XV – XVII centuries. Directions temple serfdom"> АРХИТЕКТУРА XV – XVII вв. Направления храмовое крепостное гражданское Особенности: -Многообразие видов храмов; - Сформировались архитектурные стили: шатровый НАЗАД московское (нарышкинское) барокко!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-13.jpg" alt="> PAINTING XV – XVII centuries. Church painting"> ЖИВОПИСЬ XV – XVII вв. Церковная живопись Иконопись Время расцвета иконописи – XV век. Иконописцы второй половины XV – начала XIV веков: Андрей Рублев, Дионисий, Даниил Черный. Житийные иконы состоят из средника с фигурой и ряда клейм, где рассказано о их жизни!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-14.jpg" alt="> PAINTING Church painting"> ЖИВОПИСЬ Церковная живопись Фрески - это роспись по сырой штукатурке Фрески Дионисия в церкви Рождества Богородицы в Ферапонтовом монастыре!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-15.jpg" alt="> PAINTING “Blessed is the host of the heavenly king” (“Church Militant”)">!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-16.jpg" alt="> PAINTING Church painting"> ЖИВОПИСЬ Церковная живопись XVII век «Деяния пророка Елисея» . Гурий Никитин «Иоанн Предтеча в пустыне» . Прокопий Чирин «Насаждение древа государства Российского» . Симон Ушаков!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-17.jpg" alt="> PAINTING The art of decorating a book"> ЖИВОПИСЬ Искусство художественного оформления книги МИНИАТЮРА ЗАСТАВКА БУКВИЦА небольшая заглавная буква сделанный от руки орнаментальная или укрупненного многоцветный изобразительная размера, рисунок, который композиция, помещаемая в мог располагаться выделяющая и начале текста книги, в любом месте главы, части, абзаца украшающая начало рукописи какого-либо раздела книги!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-18.jpg" alt="> PAINTING XV – XVII centuries. Directions church portrait"> ЖИВОПИСЬ XV – XVII вв. Направления церковное портрет искусство художественног о оформления книги Особенности: расширение тематики живописи; житийные иконы; политические иконы; декоративность, парадность; обилие деталей, стремление к реализму в жанре портрета; складывание школ живописи назад!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-19.jpg" alt="> ENLIGHTENMENT. XV – XVII centuries. Printing in Rus'"> ПРОСВЕЩЕНИЕ. XV – XVII вв. Книгопечатание на Руси Первые печатные книги на Руси 1564 г. - «Апостол» . Объем – 264 листа 2000 экземпляров 1565 г. - «Часовник» 1649 г. – первая книга с иллюстрациями Иван Федоров (Москвитин) Петр Тимофеев Мстиславец!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-20.jpg" alt="> ENLIGHTENMENT Typography in Rus' First"> ПРОСВЕЩЕНИЕ Книгопечатание на Руси Первые печатные буквари на Руси 1574 г. – Букварь Ивана Федорова 1634 г. -Букварь Василия Бурцова 1679 г. -Букварь Симеона Полоцкого 1694 г. , 1696 г. - Буквари Кариона Истомина Страница Большого букваря 1694 года!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-21.jpg" alt="> EDUCATION Educational institutions 1685 “school for learning"> ПРОСВЕЩЕНИЕ Учебные заведения 1685 г. «школа для учения детям» в г. Боровске 1665 г. –первая государственная греко -латинская школа в Москве. 1667 г. – в Китай-городе создан «гимнасион» 1680 г. – школа при Печатном дворе. Иоанникий и Руководитель – иеромонах Тимофей Софроний Лихуды 1687 год - Славяно – греко – латинское училище НАЗАД!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-22.jpg" alt="> LITERATURE XV - XVII centuries. Religious"> ЛИТЕРАТУРА XV - XVII вв. Религиозная Народная Светская Особенности: жития-биографии, сатирические повести и сказания рождаются новые жанры – светская повесть, драма, стихи с бытовыми, сатирическими, любовными мотивами исторические сочинения монографического жанра, летописи утрачивают былое значение назад!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-23.jpg" alt="> THE BIRTH OF THE THEATER October 17, 1672 - the first play of the Russian"> РОЖДЕНИЕ ТЕАТРА 17 октября 1672 г. – первая пьеса русского театра «Артаксерксово действо» Играли пьесы: «Иудифь» , «Малая прохладная комедия об Иосифе» , «Жалобная комедия об Адаме и Еве» Уличное представление. реконструкция 1676 год – театр закрыли НАЗАД!}
Class: 10
Presentation for the lesson
Back forward
Attention! Slide previews are for informational purposes only and may not represent all the features of the presentation. If you are interested in this work, please download the full version.
The purpose of the lesson: to identify the features of the development of Russian culture at the end of the 15th-17th centuries.
Lesson objectives:
- Educational. As a result of the lesson: students will get acquainted with the achievements of Russian culture of the late XV-XVII centuries; identify and characterize the features of the cultural rise of the period under study;
- Developmental. Students learn to: improve skills: independent work, selection of material on a given topic; work with documents and textbook text; formulate your own point of view; argue and defend your views; improve skills in systematizing the material covered: drawing up tables, diagrams; develop creative (aesthetic, artistic) abilities.
- Educational. Students: continue to develop their communication skills in the process of collective, group work; develop a sense of respect for the cultural past of their country; are convinced of the need to protect cultural monuments.
Study lesson new topic . The form of the lesson is a virtual excursion. Accompanied by a multimedia presentation.
I.Org moment.(slides 1,2)
II. Preparation for the main stage of mastering educational material.
State the topic and purpose of the lesson.
III. Learning new knowledge.
Teacher: (slide 3) The historical monuments are silent. For centuries they have kept their secrets from those who do not know how to listen and peer into the past. But they will tell a lot to the curious and thoughtful. Today's lesson we will conduct in a virtual cultural museum. Welcome to the first room called “Architecture”.
Speech by the first group of student guides “Architecture”
Tour guide 1. (slide 4) Architecture in Rus' was temple, serf and civil. History has preserved to this day some religious monuments of the late XV-XVII centuries. One of the outstanding monuments serf architecture (slide 5) During this period, the Kremlin was built, turning the city into an impregnable fortress. By the 17th century, there were already hundreds of buildings in the Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin was turning into a world-famous, unique architectural ensemble, a symbol of strength and unity of the Russian land. So let's take a look there!
Tour guide 2. The main square of the Kremlin is Sobornaya. (slide 6) Its ideological and architectural center was Uspensky The cathedral, built by the Italian architect Aristotle Fioravanti, “is remarkable for its majesty and height and lordship. And ringing. And space,” the chronicler tells us. The cathedral became the center of Russian statehood and church life, here Russian tsars and emperors were crowned kings, the most important state acts were proclaimed, and metropolitans and patriarchs were ordained.
Blagoveshchensky cathedral At first they crowned 3 domes, then single-domed chapels were added at the corners of the cathedral. The pointed 9 chapters were richly gilded. Why was the cathedral nicknamed “Golden-Domed”. Church Robes of position, which became the home church of the Metropolitan, and then the Patriarch of All Rus'.
Built by Italian Aleviz Fryazin Arkhangelsk the cathedral, which became the family tomb of the family of great princes. In the 17th century, the Cathedral of the Twelve Apostles was built.
And between the Assumption and Archangel Cathedrals, Bon Fryazin created a new bell tower. Clearly visible from all over the city and famous for its ringing, the Ivanovo Bell Tower received the name Ivan the Great. Architects Petrok Maly Bazhen Ogurtsov added a belfry to the bell tower. All three belfries formed an unusually expressive architectural complex and gave Cathedral Square a special solemnity.
Tour guide 3. (slide 7) The French composer Hector Berlioz, who visited Kolomenskoye in the middle of the 19th century, wrote: “I saw a lot, admired a lot, a lot amazed me, but time, ancient times in Russia, which left its mark in this village, was for me a miracle of miracles... I saw some the new kind architecture. I saw a striving upward, and I stood stunned for a long time.” So he spoke about the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye in honor of the birth of Ivan IV. And the new type of architecture that he admires tent The multifaceted pointed base of the temple ends with triple pointed kokoshniks. And above them rises a stone tent, crowning the entire building. The edges of the tent are intertwined with narrow stone garlands, similar to strings of precious pearls. And its top is covered with a small neat cupola with a gilded cross.
And the oldest surviving tent-roofed temple of wooden architecture is St. Nicholas Church in the village of Lyavlya, Arkhangelskaya areas. The tent style was recognized by Russian architects. The architects achieved extraordinary diversity, and not a single tented temple was the same as another.
Tour guide 4. (slide 8) The central temple of the Intercession Cathedral - the Church of the Intercession of the Virgin Mary on Red Square in memory of the capture of Kazan - is completed with a tent with a small dome. Consists of 8 asymmetrical pillar-shaped temples of different sizes. Each is dedicated to eight days in which the most important events of the campaign against Kazan took place.
Four decorative tents were used in the decoration of the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in Putinki. By the way, this church became the last monument of hipped-roof architecture in Moscow, because in 1652, Patriarch Nikon “tent churches should not be built at all.”
Guide 1. 17th century brought with him new artistic trends. The architecture became more and more elegant, churches sometimes resembled fairy-tale towers. (slide 9) Appeared tiered, boxy And multi-headed temples. This is how the decorative, picturesque style came into architecture. The shapes of the buildings became more complex, their walls were covered with multi-colored ornaments and white stone carvings.
Tour guide 2. By the end of the century, the style of the Moscow, or Naryshkin, baroque, lush and majestic, ceremonial and exceptionally elegant. (slide 10) The most famous building of the late 17th century is the Church of the Intercession of the Virgin Mary in Fili - the estate church of L.K. Naryshkin.
Tour guide 3. There is a rise civil architecture. (slide 11) A true masterpiece of Russian architecture - Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin. The architects used tiered-step alternation of volumes, picturesque asymmetry of extensions, and pointed roofs. The façades were given splendor and elegance by window frames decorated with floral patterns, as well as relief blades and cornices with tiles.
A unique creation of Russian architecture of the 17th century. was woodpalace in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow. Seven mansions on two or three floors. They were crowned with roofs different shapes. The palace had 3 thousand windows, decorated with different frames. A projecting carved porch led to each entrance.
Tour guide 4. (slide 12) Palaces, administrative buildings, towers, residential buildings, and guest courtyards were erected. The picturesque composition of the log houses with numerous protruding porches and bright tint produced a festive impression.
So, (slide 13) At the end of the 15th-17th centuries, the following directions began to develop: temple, serf, and civil. Features of the development of architecture: architectural styles - tented, baroque.
Teacher: (slide 3) The talents of Russian people extend not only to wooden or white stone architecture. Painting was no exception. The exhibition presents to your attention a collection of paintings from the 15th-17th centuries.
Presentation by the second group of student guides
Tour guide 1. (slide 14) The main idea of art was service to the Lord. The leading direction in painting, of course, church. The heyday of icon painting was the 15th century, the peaks of its creation are associated with the names of Andrei Rublev and Dainil Cherny. Russian painting of the mid-15th century ceased to be a specialty of monks alone, and the artist-monk was replaced by the artist-layman. The most outstanding representative of the Rublev movement in the art of the second half of the 15th – early 16th centuries was Dionysius. The peculiarity of his style is the painting of hagiographic icons, consisting of a centerpiece with a figure and a number of marks, which tell about their lives. Dionysius’s icons are light and spacious, he decorated them with architectural and landscape sketches
Tour guide 2. (slide 15) The pinnacle of Dionysius's creativity is frescoes in the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in the Ferapontov Monastery. They have their own uniqueness: they depicted martyrs, angels, Christ, evangelists, “ Last Judgment" Dionysius creates a painting glorifying the Mother of God. Mary is glorified as the intercessor of the human race. The entire painting is permeated by a mood of festivity, elegance, and bright joy. The works are distinguished by their sophisticated designs, refined and delicate colors.
Tour guide 3. (slide 16) In the 16th century The subject matter of painting began to expand. Artists turn to the plots and images of the Old Testament, to the legendary-historical genre. The government of Ivan the Terrible attached great importance to the exaltation of its political ideas in art. This is evidenced by the icon - a 4-meter painting “Blessed is the army of the heavenly king,” dedicated to the capture of Kazan. It depicts the solemn procession of the victorious Russian army led by Ivan the Terrible from the city engulfed in flames.
Tour guide 4. 17th century... Painting loses its integrity. Artists show interest in the real, earthly world. The paintings of that time resemble elegant carpets. They contain a lot of real characters and everyday details. Unlike ancient icons, they do not contain the artist’s deep thoughts about good and evil, about the destinies of people and the meaning of life.
Two directions have emerged. (slide 17) Godunovskaya school (icon painters worked on orders from Tsar Boris and his relatives. They were opponents of all innovations and imitated the style of the great Rublev and Dionysius). Second direction - Stroganovskaya school. (according to orders from the Stroganov merchants, lovers of icon miniatures). Artists diligently decorated iconographic images with small decorative details, rich ornamentation, and exquisite calligraphy. One of the most famous masters of this school was Procopius Chirin. (“Nikita the Warrior”). The Stroganovites had no equal in their ability to convey landscape panoramas that had not previously been seen in Russian icon painting (the icon “John the Baptist in the Desert”).
Tour guide 1. The painter and graphic artist Simon Ushakov also strived for a truthful representation of real things; among Ushakov’s works there are icons of a special kind - political paintings - “Planting the Tree of the Russian State”: the Moscow Kremlin is depicted, with the Assumption Cathedral in the center. Near it, Ivan Kalita is planting a tree. Against the background of the tree’s foliage is an icon of Our Lady of Vladimir, and on the branches are medallions with portraits of Moscow saints and sovereigns. Simon Ushakov is one of the founders of Russian portraiture. In the 17th century they were called parsuns.
Mural painter Guriy Nikitin. He painted the walls of the Church of Elijah the Prophet in Yaroslavl. In the frescoes, minor vital details of the biblical text are emphasized, religious spirituality disappears, giving way to a masterfully written colorful “story”. (harvest scene from the Acts of Elisha). Thus, from the 17th century, Old Russian icon painting ceased to exist as a dominant artistic system.
Tour guide 2. Features of realism are also noticeable in the portrait genre. If parsuns (portraits) of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, M.V. Skopin-Shuisky made in the usual manner, then the images of the middle and second half of the 17th century. They talk about the desire for portrait likeness and realistic writing. These are the portraits of Tsars Alexei Mikhailovich (S. Loputsky), Fyodor Alekseevich (I. Bogdanov), Patriarch Nikon (I. Deterson and D. Wouters). Realistic landscapes appear on the icons.
Tour guide 3. (slide 18) The art of decorating a book played no less a role and was no less original than icon painting. The main elements of the artistic design of books are miniatures, headpieces and initials. Painters mainly created miniatures related to spiritual and religious themes. Screensaver: in the XV-XVI centuries. screensavers are becoming widespread - book ornament. These are the Balkan and New Byzantine styles, then the Old Printed style. Initials often turned into complex drawings depicting strange animals, birds, monsters, fighting warriors, buffoons.
Tour guide 4. (slide 19) Thus, at the end of the 15th to the 17th century, the main directions in painting were church and artistic design of books. And also the features of painting. ( slide)
Teacher: (slide 3) The 16th century is the era of the formation of a new state, reforms of local and central government. They demanded everything more literate people. Welcome to the next room.
Tour guide 1. (slide 20) In 1563, Emperor Ivan IV ordered “set up a house from your royal treasury, let’s start building a printing business,” to "henceforth the holy books were set forth righteous". This house, later called the Printing Yard, was founded near the St. Nicholas Monastery. We found our own on the land of Moscow "some cunning masters of printing"- Ivana Fedorov and Pyotr Timofeev Mstislavets. WITH "Acts and Epistles of the Apostles," published on March 1, 1564, the book publishing activities of the Russian state began. The second book of the Printing House was Hourbook(1565): This is both a prayer book and a book for teaching literacy. The publication format is an eighth of a sheet. The pages are decorated with elegant headpieces. IN 1568 g. The printing house released Psalter. It was prepared by Nikifor Tarasiev and Nevezha Timofeev.
Tour guide 2. In 1649, the first book with illustrations made by intaglio engraving appeared in Moscow. It was "The doctrine and cunning of the military formation of infantry people." It contained 35 engraved tables.
Tour guide 3. The first library appeared in 1679, called the Printing House, to which books and manuscripts were handed over. Standard editions with amendments and notes from reference workers for future editions were also stored there. Gradually, the library grew so large that in 1670 a special position of book guardian was introduced.
(slide 24) So, the genres of secular literature: stories, legends, journalism, travel notes, “Chronograph”. Features: satirical stories and legends, new genres are born - secular story-drama, poems with their everyday, satirical, love motives
Tour guide 1. . (slide 25) The origins of the theater go back to folk art, and above all to rituals. The rituals were a kind of performance game. This playful element was picked up and developed by the first professional artists in Rus' - buffoons . Civil authorities (and especially church authorities) fought against buffoons. By decree of 1648, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich banned the performances of buffoons.
A special form of theater was onnative drama ( dramas “Tsar Maximilian”, “Boat”. "Comedy about a master"). Another form - church theater, performances of which took place on church holidays. (Christmas dramatization “Cave Act”).
Tour guide 2. . Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich became interested in theatrical art.
There is reason to believe that Alexei Mikhailovich’s final decision to create a theater arose on May 30, 1672, during a feast in honor of the birth of his son Peter. The decree “commit comedy” was dated June 4 of the same year. A person capable of writing a play and staging a performance in Moscow was found in the German settlement, where foreigners who worked in Russia lived - Johann Gottfried Gregory, the pastor of the local Lutheran church, and a corpse of 60 foreigners. They took the matter seriously: a play was being written and the theater building was being built at the same time.
Tour guide 3. . The first play of the Russian theater was called "Artaxerxes' action", after the name of the king about whom he talks biblical legend. The premiere was played on October 17, 1672 in the “comedy house” in the village of Preobrazhenskoye in one of the royal summer palaces. The king was very pleased with the “fun” and generously rewarded its author. Theatrical performances became regular at court. A stage was also built in the Kremlin and, in addition to the “Artaxerxes Action,” they performed the plays “Judith,” “Temir-Aksakov Action,” “Malaya Cool (entertainment) Comedy about Joseph”, “Plainful Comedy about Adam and Eve”. Soon Russian people were also sent to study with Gregory.
After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, performances in the royal chambers stopped, because the new tsar, Fyodor Alekseevich, did not like this kind of spectacle. But the idea of theater did not die. A long process of development of the Russian scene began.
Teacher: Our Nizhny Novgorod region is rich in cultural monuments of this period. We invite you to the hall “Culture of the Nizhny Novgorod region 15-17 centuries”. Appendix 2, Presentation 2.
IV. Summing up the lesson.
V. Information about homework.
Essay “Russian culture of the late XV-XVII centuries.”
The final stage in the history of Russian medieval culture was the 17th century. In this century, the process of “secularization” of culture began, strengthening secular elements and democratic tendencies in it. Cultural ties with countries have noticeably expanded and deepened Western Europe. All areas of culture have become significantly more complex and differentiated.
The most important event in the history of the country can be called the final formation of absolutism, which did not take the form of Western European monarchies, but became the logical conclusion of the system of eastern despotism adopted during the reign of the Mongol-Tatars in Rus'. Absolutism corresponded to the country's new imperial aspirations, the expansion of state territories (primarily to the East), which required the concentration of military and political power. In the economic field, this led to the final enslavement of the peasants, carried out in the interests of the nobility - the main support of absolutism.
In the middle of the 17th century. During the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, Patriarch Nikon carried out church reform, which led to a schism. The reform and schism became an expression of the ambiguous attitude of the Russian people towards increased secular and foreign influences. In Russian society, two warring parties have emerged - the Grecophile party, supporters of antiquity, isolationism, and the Westernist party, reformers who strived for the Europeanization of Russia. A manifestation of renovationist tendencies was the Nikon reform, which was supposed to correct the differences in Russian Orthodox rituals (for example, to be baptized not with two fingers, but with three fingers), as well as some provisions in Russian liturgical books in order to bring them into line with the practice of Greek, as well as Ukrainian and Belarusian Orthodox churches. After the convergence of the rituals of all Orthodox peoples, Nikon hoped to stand at the head of universal Orthodoxy.
Archpriest Avvakum Petrov became the banner of opponents of the reform. He and his supporters considered the break with the centuries-old national tradition offensive and categorically disagreed with the strengthening of European influence and the beginning of the secularization of Russian culture. Thus began the eternal dispute of Russian culture about the further paths of development of the country and the parties of “soilers” and Westerners were formed, which would manifest themselves again and again in subsequent periods of Russian history.
These and other historical events were reflected in the culture of Russia in the 17th century.
Russian literature of the 17th century.
Russian literature continued to be represented by journalistic works devoted to acute political problems. The Time of Troubles increased interest in the question of the nature of power in the political system. Among the most famous authors of the 17th century. - Croatian Yuri Krizanich, a European-educated thinker, a supporter of an unlimited monarchy, one of the first theorists of the idea of Slavic unity (he can be called a predecessor and theoretician of Pan-Slavism). Thus, he believed that the role of the Slavs in the world historical process is constantly growing, although it is subject to oppression and insult from foreigners, especially Turks and Germans. He assigned a special role in the future rise of the Slavs to Russia, which, having become a leading world power as a result of reforms, would liberate the enslaved Slavic and other peoples and lead them forward.
The ambiguity of the events of this time led to the fact that writers began to think about the inconsistency of human character. If earlier the heroes of books were either absolutely good or absolutely evil, now writers discover free will in a person, show his ability to change himself depending on circumstances. This is exactly how the heroes of the Chronograph of 1617 appear before us - Ivan the Terrible,
Boris Godunov, Vasily Shuisky, Kuzma Minin. As noted by Academician D.S. Likhachev, this showed a tendency to discover human character: the heroes of literature become not only holy ascetics and princes, as before, but also ordinary people - merchants, peasants, poor nobles who acted in easily recognizable situations.
Spread of literacy in the 17th century. attracted new layers of the population into the circle of readers - provincial nobles, servicemen and townspeople. The change in the social composition of the reading public has put forward new demands on literature. Such readers are especially interested in entertaining reading, the need for which was satisfied by translated knightly novels and original adventure stories. By the end of the 17th century. The Russian reading public knew up to a dozen works that came to Russia from abroad in different ways. Among them, the most popular were “The Tale of Bova Korolevich” and “The Tale of Peter the Golden Keys”. These works on Russian soil, while retaining some features of the chivalric romance, became so close to the fairy tale that they later passed into folklore. New features of literary and real life clearly manifested itself in everyday stories, whose heroes sought to live according to their own will, rejecting the precepts of antiquity. This is the hero of “The Tale of Misfortune” and especially “The Tale of Frols Skobssvs” - a typical picaresque short story that describes the life vicissitudes of an impoverished nobleman who, by hook or by crook, strives to penetrate the upper echelons of society.
In the 17th century A new literary genre arose - democratic satire, closely connected with folk art and folk laughter culture. It was created among the townspeople, clerks, lower clergy, dissatisfied with the oppression of the feudal lords, the state and the church. In particular, numerous parodies appeared, for example, on legal proceedings (“The Tale of Shsmyakin’s Court”, “The Tale of Ersha Ershovich”), and on hagiographic works (“The Tale of Hawkmoth”).
The birth of versification became a striking feature of literary life. Before that, Russia knew poetry only in folk art-in epics, but epics were not rhymed verse. Rhymed poetry arose under the influence of Polish syllabic versification, which is characterized by equal number syllables per line, a pause in the middle of the line and an end rhyme under a single strictly obligatory stress. Its founder was Belarusian Simeon of Polotsk. He received an excellent education at the Kiev-Mohyla Academy and was the court poet of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, composed numerous recitations and monologues, which became examples of new panegyric poetry and were included in the collection “Rifmagion”. He saw his task as creating Novorossiysk literature, and in many ways he accomplished this mission. His works are distinguished by their ornamentation, splendor, and reflect the idea of the “variegation of the world” and the changeability of existence. Polotsky has a craving for sensationalism, a desire to surprise and amaze the reader both in the form of presentation and in the unusualness and exoticism of the information reported. This is “Vertograd of many colors” - a kind of encyclopedia, which contains several thousand rhymed texts containing data drawn from various fields of knowledge - history, zoology, botany, geography, etc. At the same time, reliable information is interspersed with the mythologized ideas of the author.
Author's prose also appears for the first time in the 17th century; an example of it are the works of Archpriest Avvakum Petrov. He left about 90 texts written at the end of his life in exile. Among them is the famous “Life” - an emotional and eloquent confession, striking in its sincerity and courage. In his book, for the first time, the author and the hero of the work are combined, which previously would have been considered a manifestation of pride.
Theater in Russia appeared due to the emergence of secular elements in the spiritual life of society. The idea of creating a theater arose in court circles among supporters of the Europeanization of the country. A decisive role in this was played by Artamon Matveev, the head of the Ambassadorial Prikaz, who was familiar with the production of theater in Europe. There were no actors in Russia (the experience of buffoons, who were persecuted at that time, was not suitable), and there were no plays. The actors and director Johann Gregory were found in the German settlement. The first performance, which was a great success, was called “The Artaxerxes Act.” The king was so fascinated by what was happening that he watched the play for 10 hours without leaving his seat. The theater's repertoire during its existence (1672-1676) consisted of nine performances on biblical subjects and one ballet. The actions of Old Testament characters were given features of political relevance and association with modernity, which further increased interest in the spectacle.
Architecture also affected by the general departure from the church-scholastic worldview. The strengthening of secular motives was largely associated with the expansion of the environment in which aesthetic ideas were formed. The tastes of the townspeople and the peasantry, their vision of the world and understanding of beauty were introduced into architectural creativity, leading away from the models consecrated by church tradition.
Russian architecture and construction of the 17th century.
Civil, secular construction actively developed, and if at the beginning of the century it was mainly wooden, then by the end of the century stone was increasingly used. A remarkable example of wooden architecture was the unpreserved palace of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in Kolomenskoye, which was a picturesque composition of whimsically grouped large and small log cabins, connected by passages, high roofs and tents. The fabulous splendor of the palace was enhanced by gilded carvings and bright colors. IN stone construction It should be noted the restoration of the walls and towers of the Moscow Kremlin, the tent erected over the Spasskaya Tower, the Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin, the Sukharevskaya Tower.
The number of stone civil buildings increased in the second half of the 17th century. Boyars, rich merchants and nobles increasingly built stone living chambers in cities and on their estates. The most typical type is that repeating the layout of a wooden mansion and consisting of two square rooms with an oblong vestibule between them. The lower floor was occupied by utility and storage rooms. The facades were decorated with flat blades or columns, the windows were framed by rich platbands.
IN temple construction New features associated with secularization are also gradually emerging. Thus, in wooden architecture, along with cage churches (a rectangular frame - a cage, covered with a gable roof, above which rises a dome with a cross), common throughout Russia, prohibited tented churches are built (apparently, they were not canonical enough, and in the era of struggle , which the church waged against secular elements, this was enough for the ban), tiered churches. In search of a complex and rich silhouette, architects from the second half of the 17th century. use the principle of multi-domes, a magnificent embodiment of which is the Church of the Transfiguration in Kizhi, which is a strikingly beautiful 22-domed temple.
The same trends appeared in stone temple architecture. A new style developed by the middle of the 17th century. and was opposite to the architecture of the 16th century. This style was characterized by intricacy and asymmetry of design. Usually it was a five-domed pillarless temple, the main cube of which was surrounded by chapels, porches, stairs and porches with the obligatory finishing details - barrel-shaped columns, arches with a hanging weight, inlaid brick window frames. The facades of churches become polychrome, brightly colored details, colored tiles give them a festive elegance. These churches expressed that secular principle, which contemporaries called “patterned” (Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in Putinki, Trinity in Nikitniki).
Although tent construction was prohibited, tents remained one of the most favorite architectural forms and they were widely used, but not as the completion of a church, but for crowning bell towers and porches. A tall, slender, pillar-shaped bell tower topped with a tent is one of the most common themes in architecture of the second half of the 17th century.
At the end of the 17th century. A new style appears in architecture, called the Moscow, or Naryshkin, Baroque. This name does not explain the essence of the phenomenon. The connection of a number of buildings with the orders of the Naryshkin family is accidental. It is also inappropriate to call this architectural movement “Baroque”, since the similarity of Moscow architecture of the late 17th century. with the Western European Baroque style is purely external. Cyclicity and tiering, symmetry and balance of masses, known separately and earlier, in this style formed an original system, but in external design it was closest to the European Baroque style thanks to the applied order details.
The new direction was most fully and vividly manifested in the construction of small churches in estates near Moscow. These are tiered buildings: the lower tier is usually square in plan, less often rectangular, with an octagon on it, and above there is a second octagon, narrower; the composition ends with a head drum. Very often this structure is located on a basement and has open galleries around it. In the upper narrow octagon there is a belfry, and it turned out to be a church under the bell tower. The decorative decoration of these temples differs significantly from the temples of the previous era, which were overloaded with heavy and colorful decor. The new churches are light and elegant; against the smooth background of red brick walls, white columns are clearly drawn, defining the edges of the volumes. The decor is focused on the framing of windows and doors: they, as a rule, have small columns on brackets on the sides, supporting an ornate torn pediment. Instead of heavy kokoshniks, stripes of carved decorative elements, often called “cockscombs,” run above the cornices. A striking monument to this trend is the Church of the Intercession in Fili, the finely drawn details of which, combined with impeccable proportions, give it a light, openwork appearance, and the tiered composition creates the effect of vertical movement.
Russian painting of the 17th century.
Painting did not succumb as easily as architecture to secular influences, but the desire for decorativeness is observed here too. On the one hand, there is a noticeable desire to break free from the power of outdated traditions, the canon, a thirst for knowledge, a search for new moral norms, plots and images, and on the other hand, persistent attempts to turn the traditional into dogma, to keep the old intact at any cost. Therefore, icon painting in the 17th century. represented by several main directions and schools.
In the first half of the century, the main dispute in icon painting was between two schools - Godunov and Stroganov. The Godunov school gravitated towards the traditions of the past. But their attempts to follow the ancient canon, focusing on Andrei Rublev and Dionysius only led to narrative, overloaded composition. The Stroganov school (so named because many works of this style were commissioned by the Stroganovs in the Solvychegodsk workshops) arose in Moscow, among state and patriarchal masters. The characteristic features of the icons of the Stroganov school are, first of all, their small size and detailed, precise writing, which contemporaries called “petty writing.” The main stylistic features of Stroganov's artistic style are exquisite drawing, richness of colors, complex multi-figured and multi-faceted composition. One of the features of the school is a truthful depiction of nature, and the compositions always include a landscape with a low horizon, and the background is filled with bizarre clouds and “phenomena”. The figures of saints are usually thin, graceful and very elongated upward. An outstanding master of this direction was Procopius Chirinus, whose icons are characterized by a special softness of color, plasticity of elongated figures and grace of poses, for example, “Nicetas the Warrior”, “Selected Saints”; in the image of Nikita the warrior one cannot find either significance or belligerence; rather, he can be compared to a secular dandy.
Further development of painting in the 17th century. was characterized by a slow departure from dogma and the search for new subjects and forms, which is largely explained by the influence of Western European painting. The theorist and head of the largest school of this period was Simon Ushakov, the author of the programmatic work “A Word to those who are interested in icon writing,” where he outlined a new theory that broke with the old canon. He pointed out the need to combine the iconographic canon with the truth of life, which is why elements of realism and real human faces appear in his icons. This allows us to consider him one of the founders of the portrait genre in Russian art. Among the works of Simon Ushakov is the Savior Not Made by Hands, the master’s favorite image, in which he tries to achieve a flesh-colored complexion and restrained, but clearly expressed volume. But in this and other works of the artist one can sense the lack of spiritual intensity, spirituality, and burning characteristic of icons of the 14th-15th centuries. Therefore, in the icon painting of the 17th century. signs of decline appear. The tendencies towards secularization have become too strong in culture. Following the iconographic canons, which was demanded by the Old Believers led by Archpriest Avvakum, could not correct the situation.
Parsuna(from the word “persona”, i.e. portrait of a real person) - the first secular portrait genre became a completely new phenomenon in Russian painting of the second half of the 17th century. In just a few years, the new genre has come a long way - from semi-iconic images to portraits real persons- and won a strong place in Russian art. All famous people tried to capture their image. The artists sought to convey the portrait resemblance and partly the character of the character in the parsuns. In Parsuns
XVII century The features of the famous Russian portrait of the next century are already present - attention to the inner world of a person, poeticization of the image, subtle coloring.
Russian music of the 17th century.
Russian music in the 17th century also experienced drastic changes. At this time, the old Russian culture collided with Western European culture, which was significantly reflected in music. Associated with the old in music is the ancient tradition of canonical methodical znamenny chant, and with the new is partes polyphony (penis in parts) of the Western type, which reinforced the secular principle.
Partes polyphony was brought to Russia from Ukraine and Belarus and did not take root immediately: until the end of the 17th century. Znamenny chant continued to sound in churches, interspersed with three-line and demonic singing, as well as with new partes compositions. One of the fastest ways to spread new music was psalms and cants - spiritual songs, the lyrics for which were poetic transcriptions of the psalms of David. Over time, they replaced the ancient spiritual poems, since they were simpler than them, their clear, rounded melody was close to Ukrainian folk songs. Cants, having begun as a kind of spiritual lyricism, very soon went beyond the scope of home spiritual music-making and acquired new features. Thus, secular cants appeared with a variety of contents - philosophical, love, moralizing.
Supporters of antiquity condemned these new items. Archpriest Avvakum complained that new music was heard in churches, and not divine singing. But although old singing was loved in Rus', objective reasons pushed for the emergence of polyphony. Due to the large number of chants, only the most experienced singers, of whom there were not many, could understand them. In the absence of an experienced regent, the choir sounded out of tune. Another problem was that the Russian language had changed significantly compared to the ancient period; ancient semivowel sounds gradually disappeared from it. Therefore, a discrepancy between texts and tunes arose. Attempts to revive and reform Znamenny singing, undertaken by music theorists Ivan Shaidur and Alexander Mezents, were insufficient. Therefore, gradually the Znamenny chant lost its position and remained untouched only by the Old Believers, who keep it today. In the new partes singing of the 17th century. Baroque tendencies appear. If the old Znamenny chant was in every way similar to an icon - flat, one-dimensional, then in partes singing a sense of space arises, and the lush multi-layered texture conveys a sense of movement and light, typical of all Baroque art.
Thus, the 17th century. became the last century of the existence of ancient Russian art, when Western influence became especially noticeable. A sharp change begins, a qualitative leap in Russian culture, which will be completed in the 18th century. after Peter's reforms.
Russian culture in the 15th-17th centuries.
In the 16th century Russian chronicle writing continued to develop. In the middle of the 16th century. Moscow chroniclers prepared a huge chronicle corpus, a kind of historical encyclopedia of the 16th century. - the so-called Nikon Chronicle. The beginning of Russian book printing is considered to be 1564. One of the outstanding manifestations of the heyday of Russian architecture was the construction of tent-roofed churches. They do not have pillars inside and the entire mass of the building rests on the foundation. Another direction in 16th century architecture. There was the construction of small stone or wooden settlement churches. In the 16th century Extensive construction of stone kremlins was carried out. The greatest Russian painter was Dionysius. In the 17th century The formation of the all-Russian market begins. In the second half of the 17th century. Several states were created. schools in 1687, the first higher educational institution was founded in Moscow - the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. In the 17th century The last official chronicles were created. A court theater was created in Moscow. In Russian cities and villages, traveling theater became widespread. The development of Old Russian stone architecture culminated in the formation of a style called Naryshkin or Moscow Baroque.
Formation of a one-party regime in the USSR in the 20-30s
This type of totalitarianism most fully reflects the characteristic features of the regime, i.e. private property is abolished, and consequently, every basis for individualism and the autonomy of members of society is destroyed. The economic basis of Soviet-type totalitarianism was command - administrative system, built on the nationalization of the means of production. In the USSR, it was formed in the process of industrialization and collectivization. One-party politic system established itself in the USSR already in the 20s. In the 30s The CPSU (b), having gone through a number of sharp battles between its leaders in the struggle for power, was a single, strictly centralized, well-functioning mechanism. Communist Party was the only legal political organization. The spiritual basis of the totalitarian society in the USSR was the official ideology. The slightest deviation from these simple truths was punished. The cult of Stalin as the leader of society was perhaps the most important element of totalitarianism of the 30s. The entire pyramid of totalitarian power revolved around him; he was its undisputed, absolute leader. In the 30s The previously established and significantly expanded repressive apparatus (the NKVD, the bodies of extrajudicial execution - the “troikas”, the Main Directorate of the camps - the Gulag, etc.) was working at full speed. Since the late 20s. waves of repressions came one after another: the “Shakhtinsky Case” (1928), the trial of the “Industrial Party” (1930), the “Case of the Academicians” (1930), repressions in connection with the murder of Kirov (1934), political trials of 1936-1939. against former party leaders (G.E. Zinoviev, N.I. Bukharin, A.I. Rykov, etc.), leaders of the Red Army (M.N. Tukhachevsky, V.K. Blucher, I.E. Yakir, etc. .). The “Great Terror” claimed the lives of almost 1 million people who were executed; millions of people passed through the Gulag camps. Repression was the very instrument by which a totalitarian society dealt not only with real, but also with perceived opposition, instilling fear and obedience, a willingness to sacrifice friends and loved ones. On the one hand, many wanted to believe that life was getting better and more fun, that difficulties would pass, and that what they had done would remain forever. On the other hand, fear reigned, a feeling of one’s own insignificance and insecurity. There was no principle of separation of powers. Despite the predominantly totalitarian forms of political organization socialist system Humane political goals are also inherent. For example, in the USSR the level of education of the people sharply increased, achievements of science and culture became accessible, social protection of the population was ensured, the economy, space and military industries, etc. developed, and the crime rate sharply decreased.
