Which countries currently have a monarchy? Modern monarchies in Europe. Basic forms of government in the modern world
ON THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE MOVEMENT OF MATTER, ITS ABILITY TO SELF-DEVELOPMENT, AND ALSO THE CONNECTION AND INTERACTION OF MATERIAL OBJECTS IN MODERN NATURAL SCIENCE
Tsyupka V. P.
Federal State Autonomous educational institution higher vocational education"Belgorod State National research university"(National Research University "BelSU")
1. Movement of matter
“An integral property of matter is movement” 1, which is a form of existence of matter and manifests itself in any of its changes. From the uncreatability and indestructibility of matter and its attributes, including movement, it follows that the movement of matter exists forever and is infinitely diverse in the form of its manifestations.
The existence of any material object is manifested in its movement, that is, in any change that occurs to it. During the change, some properties of the material object always change. Since the totality of all the properties of a material object, characterizing its certainty, individuality, and peculiarity at a particular moment in time, corresponds to its state, it turns out that the movement of a material object is accompanied by a change in its states. The change in properties can go so far that one material object can become another material object. “But a material object can never turn into a property” (for example, mass, energy), and “a property into a material object” 2, because only moving matter can be a changing substance. In natural science, the movement of matter is also called a natural phenomenon (natural phenomenon).
It is known that “without movement there is no matter,” 3 just as without matter there can be no movement.
The movement of matter can be expressed quantitatively. The universal quantitative measure of the movement of matter, as well as any material object, is energy, which expresses the intrinsic activity of matter and any material object. Hence, energy is one of the properties of moving matter, and energy cannot be outside matter, separate from it. Energy has an equivalent relationship with mass. Consequently, mass can characterize not only the amount of a substance, but also the degree of its activity. From the fact that the movement of matter exists eternally and is infinitely diverse in the form of its manifestations, it inexorably follows that energy, which characterizes the movement of matter quantitatively, also exists eternally (uncreated and indestructible) and is infinitely diverse in the form of its manifestations. “Thus, energy never disappears or appears again, it only transforms from one type to another” 1 in accordance with the change in types of movement.
Observed different kinds(forms) of the movement of matter. They can be classified taking into account changes in the properties of material objects and the characteristics of their effects on each other.
The movement of the physical vacuum (free fundamental fields in the normal state) boils down to the fact that it constantly deviates slightly in different sides from its balance, as if “trembling”. As a result of such spontaneous low-energy excitations (deviations, disturbances, fluctuations) virtual particles are formed, which immediately dissolve in the physical vacuum. This is the lowest (basic) energy state of a moving physical vacuum, its energy is close to zero. But a physical vacuum can, for some time in some place, transform into an excited state, characterized by a certain excess of energy. With such significant, high-energy excitations (deviations, disturbances, fluctuations) of the physical vacuum, virtual particles can complete their appearance and then real fundamental particles break out of the physical vacuum different types, and, as a rule, in pairs (having an electric charge in the form of a particle and an antiparticle with electric charges of opposite signs, for example, in the form of an electron-positron pair).
Single quantum excitations of various free fundamental fields are fundamental particles.
Fermion (spinor) fundamental fields can generate 24 fermions (6 quarks and 6 antiquarks, as well as 6 leptons and 6 antileptons), divided into three generations (families). In the first generation, up and down quarks (and antiquarks), as well as leptons, an electron and an electron neutrino (and a positron with an electron antineutrino), form ordinary matter (and the rarely discovered antimatter). In the second generation, charm and strange quarks (and antiquarks), as well as leptons, muon and muon neutrino (and antimuon with muon antineutrino), having a larger mass (larger gravitational charge) are present. In the third generation there are true and charming quarks (and antiquarks), as well as leptons taon and taon neutrino (and antitaon with taon antineutrino). Fermions of the second and third generations do not participate in the formation of ordinary matter, are unstable and decay with the formation of fermions of the first generation.
Bosonic (gauge) fundamental fields can generate 18 types of bosons: gravitational field – gravitons, electromagnetic field – photons, weak interaction field – 3 types of “vions” 1, gluon field – 8 types of gluons, Higgs field – 5 types of Higgs bosons.
A physical vacuum in a sufficiently high-energy (excited) state is capable of generating many fundamental particles with significant energy, in the form of a mini-universe.
For the substance of the microworld, motion is reduced to:
to the spread, collision and transformation of elementary particles into each other;
formation from protons and neutrons atomic nuclei, their movement, collision and change;
the formation of atoms from atomic nuclei and electrons, their movement, collision and change, including the jumping of electrons from one atomic orbital to another and their separation from atoms, the addition of excess electrons;
the formation of molecules from atoms, their movement, collision and change, including the addition of new atoms, the release of atoms, the replacement of some atoms with others, and a change in the order of atoms relative to each other in a molecule.
For the substance of the macroworld and the megaworld, movement comes down to displacement, collision, deformation, destruction, unification of various bodies, as well as to their most varied changes.
If the movement of a material object (quantized field or material object) is accompanied by a change only in its physical properties, for example, frequency or wavelength for the quantized field, instantaneous speed, temperature, electric charge for a material object, then such movement is classified as a physical form. If the movement of a material object is accompanied by a change in its chemical properties, for example, solubility, flammability, acidity, then such movement is classified as a chemical form. If the movement concerns changes in objects of the megaworld (cosmic objects), then such movement is classified as an astronomical form. If the movement concerns changes in objects of the deep earth's shells (earth's interior), then such movement is classified as a geological form. If the movement concerns changing objects geographic envelope, uniting all the surface shells of the earth, then such movement is classified as a geographical form. The movement of living bodies and their systems in the form of their various life manifestations is classified as biological form. The movement of material objects, accompanied by a change in socially significant properties with the obligatory participation of humans, for example, the mining of iron ore and the production of iron and steel, the cultivation of sugar beets and the production of sugar, is classified as a socially determined form of movement.
The movement of any material object cannot always be attributed to any one form. It is complex and diverse. Even the physical motion inherent in material objects from the quantized field to bodies can include several forms. For example, an elastic collision (collision) of two solid bodies in the form of billiard balls includes a change in the position of the balls over time relative to each other and the table, and the rotation of the balls, and the friction of the balls on the surface of the table and the air, and the movement of particles of each ball, and practically reversible change in the shape of the balls during an elastic collision, and the exchange of kinetic energy with its partial conversion into the internal energy of the balls during an elastic collision, and the transfer of heat between the balls, air and the surface of the table, and the possible radioactive decay of the nuclei of unstable isotopes contained in the balls, and the penetration of neutrinos cosmic rays through balls, etc. With the development of matter and the emergence of chemical, astronomical, geological, geographical, biological and socially determined material objects, the forms of movement become more complex and more diverse. Thus, in chemical movement one can see both physical forms of movement and qualitatively new, not reducible to physical, chemical forms. In the movement of astronomical, geological, geographical, biological and socially determined objects, one can see both physical and chemical forms of movement, as well as qualitatively new, not reducible to physical and chemical, respectively astronomical, geological, geographical, biological or socially determined forms of movement. At the same time, the lower forms of motion of matter do not differ in material objects of varying degrees of complexity. For example, the physical movement of elementary particles, atomic nuclei and atoms does not differ among astronomical, geological, geographical, biological or socially determined material objects.
In the study of complex forms of movement, two extremes should be avoided. Firstly, the study of a complex form of movement cannot be reduced to simple forms of movement; a complex form of movement cannot be derived from simple ones. For example, biological movement cannot be derived only from physical and chemical forms of movement, while ignoring the biological forms of movement themselves. And secondly, you cannot limit yourself to studying only complex forms of movement, ignoring simple ones. For example, the study of biological movement well complements the study of the physical and chemical forms of movement that appear in this case.
2. The ability of matter to develop itself
As is known, the self-development of matter, and matter is capable of self-development, is characterized by a spontaneous, directed and irreversible step-by-step complication of the forms of moving matter.
The spontaneous self-development of matter means that the process of gradual complication of the forms of moving matter occurs by itself, naturally, without the participation of any unnatural or supernatural forces, the Creator, due to internal, natural causes.
The direction of self-development of matter means a kind of canalization of the process of gradual complication of the forms of moving matter from one form that existed earlier to another form that appeared later: for any new form of moving matter one can find the previous form of moving matter that gave it its origin, and vice versa, for any previous form of moving matter, one can find a new form of moving matter that arose from it. Moreover, the previous form of moving matter always existed before the new form of moving matter that arose from it, the previous form is always older than the new form that arose from it. Thanks to the canalization of the self-development of moving matter, peculiar series of gradual complication of its forms arise, showing in which direction, as well as through which intermediate (transitional) forms it went historical development some form of moving matter.
The irreversibility of the self-development of matter means that the process of gradual complication of the forms of moving matter cannot go in the opposite direction, backwards: new form moving matter cannot give birth to a previous form of moving matter from which it arose, but it can become a previous form for new forms. And if suddenly any new form of moving matter turns out to be very similar to one of the forms that preceded it, this will not mean that moving matter began to self-develop in the opposite direction: the previous form of moving matter appeared much earlier, and the new form of moving matter, even and very similar to it, appeared much later and is, although similar, but a fundamentally different form of moving matter.
3. Communication and interaction of material objects
The inherent properties of matter are connection and interaction, which are the cause of its movement. Because connection and interaction are the cause of the movement of matter, therefore connection and interaction, like movement, are universal, i.e., inherent in all material objects, regardless of their nature, origin and complexity. All phenomena in the material world are determined (in the sense of being conditioned) by natural material connections and interactions, as well as objective laws of nature, reflecting the patterns of connection and interaction. “In this sense, there is nothing supernatural and absolutely opposed to matter in the world.” 1 Interaction, like movement, is a form of being (existence) of matter.
The existence of all material objects is manifested in interaction. For any material object to exist means to somehow manifest itself in relation to other material objects, interacting with them, being in objective connections and relationships with them. If a hypothetical material “object that would not manifest itself in any way in relation to some other material objects, would not be connected with them in any way, would not interact with them, then it “would not exist for these other material objects. “But our assumption about him also could not be based on anything, since due to the lack of interaction we would have zero information about him.” 2
Interaction is the process of mutual influence of some material objects on others with the exchange of energy. The interaction of material objects can be direct, for example, in the form of a collision (impact) of two solid bodies. Or it can happen at a distance. In this case, the interaction of material objects is ensured by the bosonic (gauge) fundamental fields associated with them. A change in one material object causes excitation (deviation, perturbation, fluctuation) of the corresponding bosonic (gauge) fundamental field associated with it, and this excitation propagates in the form of a wave with a finite speed not exceeding the speed of light in vacuum (almost 300 thousand km/ With). The interaction of material objects at a distance, according to the quantum-field mechanism of interaction transfer, is of an exchange nature, since carrier particles transfer the interaction in the form of quanta of the corresponding bosonic (gauge) fundamental field. Various bosons, as interaction carrier particles, are excitations (deviations, perturbations, fluctuations) of the corresponding bosonic (gauge) fundamental fields: during emission and absorption by a material object they are real, and during propagation they are virtual.
It turns out that in any case, the interaction of material objects, even at a distance, is short-range action, since it is carried out without any gaps or voids.
The interaction of a particle with an antiparticle of a substance is accompanied by their annihilation, i.e., their transformation into the corresponding fermion (spinor) fundamental field. In this case, their mass (gravitational energy) is converted into the energy of the corresponding fermionic (spinor) fundamental field.
Virtual particles of the excited (deviating, disturbing, “trembling”) physical vacuum can interact with real particles, as if enveloping them, accompanying them in the form of so-called quantum foam. For example, as a result of the interaction of the electrons of an atom with virtual particles of the physical vacuum, a certain shift in their energy levels in the atoms occurs, and the electrons themselves perform oscillatory movements with a small amplitude.
There are four types of fundamental interactions: gravitational, electromagnetic, weak and strong.
“Gravitational interaction manifests itself in the mutual attraction... of material objects that have mass” 1 at rest, that is, material objects, at any large distances. It is assumed that the excited physical vacuum, which generates many fundamental particles, is capable of manifesting gravitational repulsion. Gravitational interaction is carried by gravitons of the gravitational field. The gravitational field connects bodies and particles with rest mass. No medium is required for the propagation of a gravitational field in the form of gravitational waves (virtual gravitons). Gravitational interaction is the weakest in its strength, therefore it is insignificant in the microworld due to the insignificance of particle masses; in the macroworld its manifestation is noticeable and it causes, for example, the fall of bodies to the Earth, and in the megaworld it plays a leading role due to the enormous masses of bodies in the megaworld and it ensures, for example, the rotation of the Moon and artificial satellites around the Earth; formation and movement of planets, planetoids, comets and other bodies in solar system and its integrity; the formation and movement of stars in galaxies - giant star systems, including up to hundreds of billions of stars connected by mutual gravity and common origin, as well as their integrity; the integrity of galaxy clusters - systems of relatively closely located galaxies, bound by forces gravity; the integrity of the Metagalaxy - the system of all known clusters of galaxies connected by gravitational forces, as a studied part of the Universe, the integrity of the entire Universe. Gravitational interaction determines the concentration of matter scattered in the Universe and its inclusion in new development cycles.
“Electromagnetic interaction is caused by electric charges and is transmitted” by 1 photons electro magnetic field over any long distances. An electromagnetic field binds bodies and particles that have electrical charges. Moreover, stationary electric charges are connected only by the electrical component electromagnetic field in the form of an electric field, and moving electric charges are connected by both the electric and magnetic components of the electromagnetic field. For the propagation of an electromagnetic field in the form of electromagnetic waves, no additional medium is required, since “a changing magnetic field generates an alternating electric field, which, in turn, is a source of an alternating magnetic field" 2. “Electromagnetic interaction can manifest itself both as attraction (between unlike charges) and as repulsion (between” 3 like charges). Electromagnetic interaction is much stronger than gravitational interaction. It manifests itself both in the microcosm and in the macrocosm and megaworld, but the leading role belongs to it in the macrocosm. Electromagnetic interaction ensures the interaction of electrons with nuclei. Interatomic and intermolecular interaction is electromagnetic, thanks to it, for example, molecules exist and the chemical form of motion of matter is carried out, bodies exist and are determined by them states of aggregation, elasticity, friction, surface tension of liquid, vision functions. Thus, electromagnetic interaction ensures the stability of atoms, molecules and macroscopic bodies.
Elementary particles having a rest mass participate in weak interaction; it is carried by “vions” of 4 gauge fields. Weak interaction fields connect various elementary particles with rest mass. The weak interaction is much weaker than the electromagnetic force, but stronger than the gravitational force. Due to its short action, it manifests itself only in the microcosm, causing, for example, the majority of self-disintegrations of elementary particles (for example, a free neutron self-disintegrates with the participation of a negatively charged gauge boson into a proton, electron and electron antineutrino, sometimes this also produces a photon), the interaction of neutrinos with the rest of the substance.
Strong interaction manifests itself in the mutual attraction of hadrons, which include quark structures, for example, two-quark mesons and three-quark nucleons. It is transmitted by gluons of gluon fields. Gluon fields bind hadrons. This is the strongest interaction, but due to its short action it manifests itself only in the microcosm, ensuring, for example, the connection of quarks in nucleons, the connection of nucleons in atomic nuclei, ensuring their stability. The strong interaction is 1000 times stronger than the electromagnetic interaction and does not allow similarly charged protons united in the nucleus to fly away. Thermonuclear reactions, in which several nuclei combine into one, are also possible due to the strong interaction. Natural fusion reactors are stars that create all chemical elements heavier than hydrogen. Heavy multinucleon nuclei become unstable and fission, because their sizes already exceed the distance at which the strong interaction manifests itself.
“As a result of experimental studies of the interactions of elementary particles ... it was discovered that at high collision energies of protons - about 100 GeV - ... weak and electromagnetic interactions do not differ - they can be considered as a single electroweak interaction.” 1 It is assumed that “at an energy of 10 15 GeV they are joined by a strong interaction, and at” 2 “even higher energies of interaction of particles (up to 10 19 GeV) or at extremely high temperature In matter, all four fundamental interactions are characterized by the same strength, i.e. they represent one interaction” 3 in the form of a “super force”. Perhaps such high-energy conditions existed at the beginning of the development of the Universe, which emerged from a physical vacuum. In the process of further expansion of the Universe, accompanied by rapid cooling of the resulting matter, the integral interaction was first divided into electroweak, gravitational and strong, and then the electroweak interaction was divided into electromagnetic and weak, i.e., into four fundamentally different interactions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Karpenkov, S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science [Text]: textbook. manual for universities / S. Kh. Karpenkov. – 2nd ed., revised. and additional – M.: Academic Project, 2002. – 368 p.
Concepts modern natural science[Text]: textbook. for universities / Ed. V. N. Lavrinenko, V. P. Ratnikova. – 3rd ed., revised. and additional – M.: UNITY-DANA, 2005. – 317 p.
Philosophical problems of natural science [Text]: textbook. manual for graduate students and students of philosophy. and natural fak. un-tov / Ed. S. T. Melyukhina. – M.: graduate School, 1985. – 400 p.
Tsyupka, V. P. Natural scientific picture of the world: concepts of modern natural science [Text]: textbook. allowance / V. P. Tsyupka. – Belgorod: IPK NRU “BelSU”, 2012. – 144 p.
Tsyupka, V.P. Concepts of modern physics that make up the modern physical picture of the world [ Electronic resource] // Scientific electronic archive of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences: correspondence. electron. scientific conf. “Concepts of modern natural science or the natural scientific picture of the world” URL: http://site/article/6315(posted: 10/31/2011)
Yandex. Dictionaries. [Electronic resource] URL: http://slovari.yandex.ru/
1Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science. M. Academic Project. 2002. P. 60.
2Philosophical problems of natural science. M. Higher school. 1985. P. 181.
3Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science... P. 60.
1Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science... P. 79.
1Karpenkov S. Kh.
1Philosophical problems of natural science... P. 178.
2Ibid. P. 191.
1Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science... P. 67.
1Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science... P. 68.
3Philosophical problems of natural science... P. 195.
4Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science... P. 69.
1Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science... P. 70.
2Concepts of modern natural science. M. UNITY-DANA. 2005. P. 119.
3Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science... P. 71.
Tsyupka V.P. ON THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE MOVEMENT OF MATTER, ITS ABILITY TO SELF-DEVELOPMENT, AND ALSO THE COMMUNICATION AND INTERACTION OF MATERIAL OBJECTS IN MODERN NATURAL SCIENCE // Scientific electronic archive.
URL: (access date: 03/17/2020).
| Generation | Quarks with charge (+2/3) | Quarks with charge (−1/3) | ||||||
| Quark/antiquark symbol | Mass (MeV) | Name/flavor of quark/antiquark | Quark/antiquark symbol | Mass (MeV) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | u-quark (up-quark) / anti-u-quark | texvc not found; See math/README for setup help.): u / \, \overline(u)
|
from 1.5 to 3 | d-quark (down-quark) / anti-d-quark | Unable to parse expression (Executable file texvc not found; See math/README for setup help.): d / \, \overline(d)
|
4.79±0.07 | ||
| 2 | c-quark (charm-quark) / anti-c-quark | Unable to parse expression (Executable file texvc not found; See math/README for setup help.): c / \, \overline(c)
|
1250 ± 90 | s-quark (strange quark) / anti-s-quark | Unable to parse expression (Executable file texvc not found; See math/README for setup help.): s / \, \overline(s)
|
95 ± 25 | ||
| 3 | t-quark (top-quark) / anti-t-quark | Unable to parse expression (Executable file texvc not found; See math/README for setup help.): t / \, \overline(t)
|
174 200 ± 3300 | b-quark (bottom-quark) / anti-b-quark | Unable to parse expression (Executable file texvc not found; See math/README for setup help.): b / \, \overline(b)
|
4200±70 | ||
see also
Write a review about the article "Fundamental particle"
Notes
Links
- S. A. Slavatinsky// Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology(Dolgoprudny, Moscow region)
- Slavatinsky S.A.
- // SOZH, 2001, No. 2, p. 62–68 archive http://web.archive.org/web/20060116134302/http://journal.issep.rssi.ru/annot.php?id=S1176
- // nuclphys.sinp.msu.ru
- // second-physics.ru
- //physics.ru
- //physics.ru
- //physics.ru
| // nature.web.ru | The most famous formula from general relativity is the law of conservation of energy-mass This is a draft article on physics. |
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Until relatively recently, several hundred particles and antiparticles were considered elementary. Detailed Study their properties and interactions with other particles and the development of the theory have shown that most of them are not actually elementary, since they themselves consist of the simplest or, as they now say, fundamental particles. Fundamental particles themselves no longer consist of anything. Numerous experiments have shown that all fundamental particles behave like dimensionless point objects that do not have an internal structure, at least up to the smallest currently studied distances of ~10 -16 cm.
Introduction
Among the countless and varied processes of interaction between particles, there are four basic or fundamental interactions: strong (nuclear), electromagnetic, and gravitational. In the world of particles, gravitational interaction is very weak, its role is still unclear, and we will not talk about it further.
There are two groups of particles in nature: hadrons, which participate in all fundamental interactions, and leptons, which do not participate only in the strong interaction.
According to modern concepts, interactions between particles are carried out through the emission and subsequent absorption of quanta of the corresponding field (strong, weak, electromagnetic) surrounding the particle. Such quanta are gauge bosons, which are also fundamental particles. For bosons, their own angular momentum, called spin, is equal to integer value Planck's constant $h = 1.05 \cdot 10^(-27) erg \cdot s$. Field quanta and, accordingly, carriers of strong interactions are gluons, denoted by the symbol g, electromagnetic field quanta are well-known light quanta - photons, denoted by $\gamma $, and weak field quanta and, accordingly, carriers of weak interactions are W± (double ve)- and Z 0 (zet zero) bosons.
Unlike bosons, all other fundamental particles are fermions, that is, particles with a half-integer spin value equal to h/2.
In table 1 shows the symbols of fundamental fermions - leptons and quarks.
Each particle shown in table. 1, corresponds to an antiparticle that differs from the particle only in the signs of the electric charge and other quantum numbers (see Table 2) and the direction of the spin relative to the direction of the particle’s momentum. We will denote antiparticles with the same symbols as particles, but with a wavy line above the symbol.
Particles in table. 1 are designated by Greek and Latin letters, namely: the letter $\nu$ - three different neutrinos, the letters e - electron, $\mu$ - muon, $\tau$ - taon, the letters u, c, t, d, s, b denotes quarks; their names and characteristics are given in table. 2.
Particles in table. 1 are grouped into three generations I, II and III according to the structure of modern theory. Our Universe is built from first generation particles - leptons and quarks and gauge bosons, but, as shown modern science about the development of the Universe, on initial stage Particles from all three generations played an important role in its development.
| Leptons | Quarks | ||||||||||||
|
|
Leptons
First, let's look at the properties of leptons in more detail. In the top line of the table. 1 contains three different neutrinos: electron $\nu_e$, muon $\nu_m$ and tau neutrino $\nu_t$. Their mass has not yet been accurately measured, but its upper limit has been determined, for example, for ne equal to 10 -5 of the electron mass (that is, $\leq 10^(-32)$ g).
When looking at the table. 1, the question inevitably arises as to why nature needed to create three different neutrinos. There is no answer to this question yet, because such a comprehensive theory of fundamental particles has not been created that would indicate the necessity and sufficiency of all such particles and describe their basic properties. Perhaps this problem will be solved in the 21st century (or later).
Bottom line of the table. Chapter 1 begins with the particle we have studied most, the electron. The electron was discovered at the end of the last century by the English physicist J. Thomson. The role of electrons in our world is enormous. They are those negatively charged particles that, together with atomic nuclei, form all the atoms of the elements known to us in the Periodic Table of Mendeleev. In each atom, the number of electrons is exactly equal to the number of protons in the atomic nucleus, which makes the atom electrically neutral.
An electron is stable; the main possibility of destroying an electron is its death upon collision with an antiparticle - a positron e +. This process is called annihilation:
$$e^- + e^+ \to \gamma + \gamma .$$
As a result of annihilation, two gamma quanta are formed (as high-energy photons are called), carrying away both the rest energies e + and e - and their kinetic energies. At high energies e + and e - hadrons and quark pairs are formed (see, for example, (5) and Fig. 4).
Reaction (1) clearly illustrates the validity of A. Einstein’s famous formula on the equivalence of mass and energy: E = mc 2 .
Indeed, during the annihilation of a positron stopped in matter and an electron at rest, their entire rest mass (equal to 1.22 MeV) is converted into the energy of $\gamma$-quanta, which do not have a rest mass.
In the second generation of the bottom line of the table. 1 is located >muon - a particle that is, in all its properties, an analogue of an electron, but with an anomalously large mass. The mass of a muon is 207 times greater than the mass of an electron. Unlike the electron, the muon is unstable. The time of his life t= 2.2 · 10 -6 s. The muon preferentially decays into an electron and two neutrinos according to the scheme
$$\mu^- \to e^- + \tilde \nu_e +\nu_(\mu)$$
An even heavier analogue of the electron is the $\tau$-lepton (taon). Its mass is more than 3 thousand times greater than the mass of an electron ($m_(\tau) = 1777$ MeV/c 2), that is, it is heavier than a proton and a neutron. Its lifetime is 2.9 · 10 -13 s, and from more than a hundred different schemes (channels) of its decay the following are possible:
$$\tau^-\left\langle\begin(matrix) \to e^- + \tilde \nu_e +\nu_(\tau)\\ \to \mu^- + \tilde \nu_\mu +\nu_ (\tau)\end(matrix)\right.$$
Speaking of leptons, it is interesting to compare the weak and electromagnetic forces at some specific distance, e.g. R= 10 -13 cm. At this distance, electromagnetic forces are almost 10 billion times greater than weak forces. But this does not mean at all that the role of weak forces in nature is small. Not at all.
It is weak forces that are responsible for many mutual transformations of various particles into other particles, as, for example, in reactions (2), (3), and such mutual transformations are one of the most characteristic features of particle physics. Unlike reactions (2), (3), electromagnetic forces act in reaction (1).
Speaking about leptons, it is necessary to add that modern theory describes electromagnetic and weak interactions using a unified electroweak theory. It was developed by S. Weinberg, A. Salam and S. Glashow in 1967.
Quarks
The very idea of quarks arose from a brilliant attempt to classify a large number of particles participating in strong interactions called hadrons. M. Gell-Mann and G. Zweig suggested that all hadrons consist of a corresponding set of fundamental particles - quarks, their antiquarks and carriers of the strong interaction - gluons.
The total number of hadrons currently observed is more than a hundred particles (and the same number of antiparticles). Many dozens of particles have not yet been registered. All hadrons are divided into heavy particles called baryons, and the averages named mesons.
Baryons are characterized by their baryon number b= 1 for particles and b = -1 for antibaryons. Their birth and destruction always occur in pairs: baryon and antibaryon. Mesons have a baryon charge b = 0. According to the idea of Gell-Mann and Zweig, all baryons consist of three quarks, antibaryons - of three antiquarks. Therefore, each quark was assigned a baryon number of 1/3, so that in total the baryon had b= 1 (or -1 for an antibaryon consisting of three antiquarks). Mesons have a baryon number b= 0, so they can be composed of any combination of pairs of any quark and any antiquark. In addition to the same quantum numbers for all quarks - spin and baryon number - there are other important characteristics of them, such as the value of their rest mass m, the magnitude of the electric charge Q/e(in fractions of electron charge e= 1.6 · 10 -19 coulombs) and a certain set of quantum numbers characterizing the so-called quark flavor. These include:
1) the magnitude of the isotopic spin I and the magnitude of its third projection, that is I 3. So, u-quark and d-quark form an isotopic doublet, they are assigned a full isotopic spin I= 1/2 with projections I 3 = +1/2 corresponding u-quark, and I 3 = -1/2, corresponding d-quark. Both components of the doublet have similar mass values and are identical in all other properties, with the exception of electric charge;
2) quantum number S- strangeness characterizes the strange behavior of some particles that have an anomalously long lifetime (~10 -8 - 10 -13 s) compared to the characteristic nuclear time (~10 -23 s). The particles themselves have been called strange, containing one or more strange quarks and strange antiquarks. The birth or disappearance of strange particles due to strong interactions occur in pairs, that is, in any nuclear reaction the sum of $\Sigma$S before the reaction must be equal to $\Sigma$S after the reaction. However, in weak interactions the law of conservation of strangeness does not hold.
In experiments at accelerators, particles were observed that were impossible to describe using u-, d- And s-quarks. By analogy with strangeness, it was necessary to introduce three more new quarks with new quantum numbers WITH = +1, IN= -1 and T= +1. Particles composed of these quarks have a significantly larger mass (> 2 GeV/c 2). They have a wide variety of decay patterns with a lifetime of ~10 -13 s. A summary of the characteristics of all quarks is given in table. 2.
Each quark table. 2 corresponds to your antiquark. For antiquarks, all quantum numbers have the sign opposite to that indicated for the quark. The following must be said about the magnitude of the quark mass. Given in table. 2 values correspond to the masses of naked quarks, that is, the quarks themselves without taking into account the gluons surrounding them. The mass of dressed quarks is greater due to the energy carried by gluons. This is especially noticeable for the lightest u- And d-quarks, the gluon coat of which has an energy of about 300 MeV.
Quarks that determine the fundamental physical properties particles are called valence quarks. In addition to valence quarks, hadrons contain virtual pairs of particles - quarks and antiquarks, which are emitted and absorbed by gluons for a very short time
(Where E- the energy of the virtual pair), which occurs in violation of the law of conservation of energy in accordance with the Heisenberg uncertainty relation. Virtual pairs of quarks are called sea quarks or sea quarks. Thus, the structure of hadrons includes valence and sea quarks and gluons.
The main feature of all quarks is that they have corresponding strong charges. Strong field charges have three equal varieties (instead of one electric charge in the theory of electric forces). In historical terminology, these three types of charge are called the colors of quarks, namely: conventionally red, green and blue. Thus, each quark in the table. 1 and 2 can be in three forms and is a colored particle. Mixing all three colors, just as happens in optics, gives White color, that is, it discolors the particle. All observed hadrons are colorless.
| Quarks | u(up) | d(down) | s(strange) | c(charm) | b(bottom) | t(top) |
| Mass m 0 | (1.5-5) MeV/s 2 | (3-9) MeV/s 2 | (60-170) MeV/s 2 | (1.1-4.4) GeV/s 2 | (4.1-4.4) GeV/s 2 | 174 GeV/s 2 |
| Isospin I | +1/2 | +1/2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Projection I 3 | +1/2 | -1/2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Electric charge Q/e | +2/3 | -1/3 | -1/3 | +2/3 | -1/3 | +2/3 |
| Weirdness S | 0 | 0 | -1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Charm C | 0 | 0 | 0 | +1 | 0 | 0 |
| Bottom B | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | -1 | 0 |
| Top T | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | +1 |
Quark interactions are carried out by eight different gluons. The term "gluon" means in English glue, that is, these field quanta are particles that seem to glue the quarks together. Like quarks, gluons are colored particles, but since each gluon changes the colors of two quarks at once (the quark that emits the gluon and the quark that absorbs the gluon), the gluon is colored twice, carrying a color and an anticolor, usually different from the color .
The rest mass of gluons, like that of a photon, is zero. In addition, gluons are electrically neutral and do not have a weak charge.
Hadrons are also usually divided into stable particles and resonances: baryon and meson. 
Resonances are characterized by an extremely short lifetime (~10 -20 -10 -24 s), since their decay is due to strong interaction.
Dozens of such particles were discovered by the American physicist L.V. Alvarez. Since the path of such particles to decay is so short that they cannot be observed in detectors that record traces of particles (such as a bubble chamber, etc.), they were all detected indirectly, by the presence of peaks depending on the probability of interaction of various particles with each other on energy. Figure 1 explains this. The figure shows the dependence of the interaction cross section (proportional to the probability value) of a positive pion $\pi^+$ with a proton p from the kinetic energy of the pion. At an energy of about 200 MeV, a peak is visible during the cross section. Its width is $\Gamma = 110$ MeV, and the total mass of the particle $\Delta^(++)$ is equal to $T^(")_(max)+M_p c^2+M_\pi c^2=1232$ MeV /с 2 , where $T^(")_(max)$ - kinetic energy collisions of particles in the system of their center of mass. Most resonances can be considered as the excited state of stable particles, since they have the same quark composition as their stable counterparts, although the mass of the resonances is greater due to the excitation energy.
Quark model of hadrons
We begin to describe the quark model of hadrons with a drawing of field lines emanating from a source - a quark with a colored charge and ending at an antiquark (Fig. 2, b). For comparison, in Fig. 2, and we show that in the case of electromagnetic interaction, the lines of force diverge from their source - the electric charge - like a fan, because virtual photons emitted simultaneously by the source do not interact with each other. As a result, we obtain Coulomb's law.
In contrast to this picture, gluons themselves have colored charges and interact strongly with each other. As a result, instead of a fan of power lines, we have a bundle shown in Fig. 2, b. The rope is stretched between a quark and an antiquark, but the most amazing thing is that the gluons themselves, having colored charges, become sources of new gluons, the number of which increases as they move away from the quark. 
This picture of interaction corresponds to the dependence of the potential energy of interaction between quarks on the distance between them, shown in Fig. 3. Namely: up to the distance R> 10 -13 cm, the U(R) dependence has a funnel-shaped character, and the strength of the color charge in this distance range is relatively small, so that quarks at R> 10 -15 cm, to a first approximation, can be considered as free, non-interacting particles. This phenomenon has the special name of asymptotic freedom of quarks at small R. However, when R greater than some critical $R_(cr) \approx 10^(-13)$ cm value of potential interaction energy U(R) becomes directly proportional to the value R. It follows directly that the force F = -dU/dR= const, that is, does not depend on distance. No other interactions that physicists had previously studied had such an unusual property.
Calculations show that the forces acting between a quark and an antiquark, indeed, starting from $R_(cr) \approx 10_(-13)$ cm, cease to depend on distance, remaining at a level of enormous magnitude, close to 20 tons. At a distance R~ 10 -12 cm (equal to the radius of average atomic nuclei) color forces are more than 100 thousand times greater than electromagnetic forces. If we compare the color force with the nuclear forces between a proton and a neutron inside an atomic nucleus, it turns out that the color force is thousands of times greater! Thus, a new grandiose picture of color forces in nature opened up before physicists, many orders of magnitude greater than the currently known nuclear forces. Of course, the question immediately arises as to whether such forces can be made to work as a source of energy. Unfortunately, the answer to this question is negative.
Naturally, another question arises: to what distances? R between quarks, the potential energy increases linearly with increasing R? 
The answer is simple: at large distances the bundle of field lines breaks, since it is energetically more favorable to form a break with the birth of a quark-antiquark pair of particles. This occurs when the potential energy at the discontinuity site is greater than the rest mass of the quark and antiquark. The process of breaking the bundle of force lines of the gluon field is shown in Fig. 2, V.
Such qualitative ideas about the birth of a quark-antiquark make it possible to understand why single quarks are not observed at all and cannot be observed in nature. Quarks are forever trapped inside hadrons. This phenomenon of quark confinement is called confinement. At high energies, it may be more advantageous for the bundle to break in many places at once, forming many $q\tilde q$-pairs. In this way we approach the problem of multiple births quark-antiquark pairs and the formation of hard quark jets.
Let us first consider the structure of light hadrons, that is, mesons. They consist, as we have already said, of one quark and one antiquark.
It is extremely important that both partners of the pair have the same color charge and the same anti-charge (for example, a blue quark and an anti-blue antiquark), so that their pair, regardless of the flavors of the quarks, has no color (and we observe only colorless particles).
All quarks and antiquarks have a spin (in fractions of h), equal to 1/2. Therefore, the total spin of a combination of a quark and an antiquark is either 0 when the spins are antiparallel, or 1 when the spins are parallel to each other. But the spin of a particle can be greater than 1 if the quarks themselves rotate in some orbits inside the particle.
In table Figure 3 shows some paired and more complex combinations of quarks, indicating which previously known hadrons this combination of quarks corresponds to.
| Quarks | Mesons | Quarks | Baryons | |||
| J=0 | J=1 | J=1/2 | J=3/2 | |||
| Fundamental | resonances | Fundamental | resonances | |||
| $\pi^+$ |
$\rho^+$ |
uuu | $\Delta^(++)$ |
|||
| $\tilde u d$ | $\pi^-$ |
$\rho^-$ |
uud | p |
$\Delta^+$ |
|
| $u \tilde u - d \tilde d$ | $\pi^0$ |
$\rho^0$ |
udd | n (neutron) |
\Delta^0 (delta0) |
|
| $u \tilde u + d \tilde d$ | $\eta$ |
$\omega$ |
ddd | $\Delta^-$ |
||
| $d \tilde s$ | $k^0$ |
$k^0*$ |
uus | $\Sigma^+$ |
$\Sigma^+*$ |
|
| $u \tilde s$ | $k^+$ |
$k^+*$ |
uds | $\Lambda^0$ |
$\Sigma^0*$ |
|
| $\tilde u s$ | $k^-$ |
$k^-*$ |
dds | $\Sigma^-$ |
$\Sigma^-*$ |
|
| $c \tilde d$ | $D^+$ |
$D^+*$ |
uss | $\Xi^0$ |
$\Xi^0*$ |
|
| $c \tilde s$ | $D^+_s$ |
$D^+_s*$ |
dss | $\Xi^-$ |
$\Xi^-*$ |
|
| $c \tilde c$ | Charmony | $J/\psi$ |
sss | $\Omega^-$ |
||
| $b \tilde b$ | Bottonium | Upsilon | udc | $\Lambda^+_c$ (lambda-tse+) |
||
| $c \tilde u$ | $D^0$ |
$D^0*$ |
uuc | $\Sigma^(++)_c$ |
||
| $b \tilde u$ | $B^-$ |
$B*$ |
udb | $\Lambda_b$ |
||
Of the currently best-studied mesons and meson resonances, the largest group consists of light non-aromatic particles whose quantum numbers S = C = B= 0. This group includes about 40 particles. Table 3 begins with pions $\pi$ ±,0, discovered by the English physicist S.F. Powell in 1949. Charged pions live for about 10 -8 s, decaying into leptons according to the following schemes:
$\pi^+ \to \mu + \nu_(\mu)$ and $\pi^- \to \mu^- + \tilde \nu_(\mu)$.
Their "relatives" in the table. 3 - resonances $\rho$ ±,0 (rho mesons), unlike pions, have spin J= 1, they are unstable and only live for about 10 -23 s. The reason for the decay of $\rho$ ±,0 is strong interaction.
The reason for the decay of charged pions is due to weak interaction, namely, the fact that the quarks that make up the particle are able to emit and absorb as a result of weak interaction for a short time t in accordance with relation (4), virtual gauge bosons: $u \to d + W^+$ or $d \to u + W^-$, and, unlike leptons, transitions of a quark of one generation to a quark of another generation are also carried out, for example $u \to b + W^+$ or $u \to s + W^+$, etc., although such transitions are significantly rarer than transitions within one generation. At the same time, during all such transformations, the electric charge in the reaction is retained.
Study of mesons including s- And c-quarks, led to the discovery of several dozen strange and charmed particles. Their research is now being carried out in many scientific centers around the world.
Study of mesons including b- And t-quarks, began intensively at accelerators, and we will not talk about them in more detail for now.
Let's move on to considering heavy hadrons, that is, baryons. All of them are composed of three quarks, but those that have all three varieties of color, since, like mesons, all baryons are colorless. Quarks inside baryons can have orbital motion. In this case, the total spin of the particle will exceed the total spin of the quarks, equal to 1/2 or 3/2 (if the spins of all three quarks are parallel to each other).
The baryon with the minimum mass is the proton p(see Table 3). It is protons and neutrons that make up all atomic nuclei. chemical elements. The number of protons in a nucleus determines its total electrical charge Z.
The other main particle of atomic nuclei is the neutron n. A neutron is slightly heavier than a proton, it is unstable and in a free state, with a lifetime of about 900 s, it decays into a proton, electron and neutrino. In table Figure 3 shows the quark state of the proton uud and neutron udd. But with the spin of this combination of quarks J= 3/2 resonances $\Delta^+$ and $D^0$ are formed, respectively. All other baryons consisting of heavier quarks s, b, t, and have a significantly larger mass. Among them, of particular interest was W- -hyperon, consisting of three strange quarks. It was discovered first on paper, that is, by calculation, using ideas about the quark structure of baryons. All the basic properties of this particle were predicted and then confirmed by experiments.
Many experimentally observed facts now convincingly indicate the existence of quarks. In particular, we are talking about the discovery of a new process in the collision reaction of electrons and positrons, leading to the formation of quark-antiquark jets. A diagram of this process is shown in Fig. 4. The experiment was carried out at colliders in Germany and the USA. The figure shows the direction of the beams with arrows e+ and e- , and from the point of their collision a quark escapes q and antiquark $\tilde q$ at zenith angle $\Theta$ to the flight direction e+ and e- . This birth of a $q+\tilde q$ pair occurs in the reaction
$$e^+ + e^- \to \gamma_(virt) \to q + \tilde q$$
As we have already said, a bundle of power lines (more often called a string) when stretched sufficiently large breaks into components. 
At high energy quark and antiquark, as mentioned earlier, the string breaks in many places, as a result of which two narrow beams of secondary colorless particles are formed in both directions along the line of flight of the q quark and the antiquark, as shown in Fig. 4. Such beams of particles are called jets. Quite often, experimentally observed formation of three, four or more jets of particles simultaneously.
In experiments carried out at superaccelerator energies in cosmic rays, in which the author of this article took part, photographs of the process of formation of many jets were obtained. The fact is that the rope or string is one-dimensional and therefore the centers of formation of three, four or more jets are also located along a straight line.
The theory that describes strong interactions is called quantum chromodynamics or for short QCD. It is much more complex than the theory of electroweak interactions. QCD is especially successful in describing the so-called hard processes, that is, processes of interaction of particles with large transfer of momentum between particles. Although the creation of the theory has not yet been completed, many theoretical physicists are already busy creating the “grand unification” - the unification of quantum chromodynamics and the theory of electroweak interaction into a single theory.
In conclusion, let us briefly consider whether six leptons and 18 multi-colored quarks (and their antiparticles), as well as quanta of fundamental fields - the photon, W ± -, Z 0 bosons, eight gluons and, finally, quanta of the gravitational field - gravitons - the entire arsenal of truly elementary, or more precisely, fundamental particles. Apparently not. Most likely, the described pictures of particles and fields are a reflection only of our current knowledge. It is not for nothing that there are already many theoretical ideas that include a large group of still observed so-called supersymmetric particles, an octet of superheavy quarks, and much more.
Obviously, modern physics is still far from constructing a complete theory of particles. Perhaps the great physicist Albert Einstein was right when he believed that only taking gravity into account, despite its now seemingly small role in the microworld, would make it possible to construct a rigorous theory of particles. But all this is already in the 21st century or even later.
Literature
1. Okun L.B. Physics of elementary particles. M.: Nauka, 1988.
2. Kobzarev I.Yu. Laureates Nobel Prize 1979: S. Weinberg, S. Glashow, A. Salam // Nature. 1980. N 1. P. 84.
3. Zeldovich Ya.B. Classification of elementary particles and quarks as presented for pedestrians // Uspekhi fiz. Sci. 1965. T. 8. P. 303.
4. Krainov V.P. Uncertainty relation for energy and time // Soros Educational Journal. 1998. N 5. P. 77-82.
5. Nambu I. Why there are no free quarks // Uspekhi fiz. Sci. 1978. T. 124. P. 146.
6. Zhdanov G.B., Maksimenko V.M., Slavatinsky S.A. Experiment "Pamir" // Nature. 1984. N 11. P. 24
Article reviewer L.I. Sarycheva
S. A. Slavatinsky Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny, Moscow region.
Currently, monarchies (we are talking about constitutional forms of government) exist in many European countries, including the most developed of them. For example, in all Scandinavian countries There are reigning rulers: in Sweden - Carl XVI Gustav, in Norway - Harald V, in Denmark - Queen Margaret II. One of the highest standards of living is in Luxembourg, which, in fact, also has a constitutional monarchy in its form of government. Luxembourg has a per capita GDP of over $100,000. In addition to the above-mentioned countries, the monarchy also remains in Spain, Great Britain, Belgium, the Netherlands and some dwarf states - Andorra, Liechtenstein, Monaco. It is interesting that another new monarch appeared not so long ago - the newly elected President of France, Emmanuel Macron. This happened because since the Middle Ages, the French ruler has received the title of prince-co-ruler of Andorra, which Macron became.
Evolution of European monarchies
Monarchies began to disappear en masse in Europe in the 20th century. If we look at Europe at the beginning of the last century, we will see that almost all countries of that time had a monarchical form of government - the only exception was the French Republic (at that time already the Third, currently in France the Fifth Republic). Back in the 19th century, there were disputes about who the French were - monarchists or republicans. These views changed along with the form of government in France: after a plebiscite proclaimed Napoleon emperor, after it there was a Restoration and a short-lived renewal of the rule of the Bourbon dynasty, which experienced another revolution.
In 1848, the republic was again restored in France, but elected president Napoleon's nephew decided to return imperial power to his family. However, defeat in the Franco-Prussian War and other problems led to another change political system in favor of the republic. Currently, the external symbols of the French Republic are purely revolutionary: the banner, the Marseillaise, Marianne. Although the uniform of the guards is Napoleonic. This is a pretty important difference. Napoleon's descendants are still alive in France, although some of them adhere to socialist views.
Queen Elizabeth II and Prime Ministers of the Commonwealth States, May 1960
// wikipedia.org
The most famous modern monarchy is, of course, the British one. In England, conversations periodically flare up that the monarchy should be abolished and a republic introduced. But the British like the monarchy, it is a kind of symbol of the country. In this sense, it may be difficult for residents of republics to understand those who live in kingdoms: they do not understand why a monarchy is needed at all. Indeed, the presence of constitutional monarchies in modern world, in modern Europe seems almost absurd: the king, for example, in Sweden has absolutely no power, but everyone honors and respects him, despite the fact that he suffers from dyslexia.
King and law
Modern monarchs also violate established traditions when concluding marriages. For example, the current king of Norway, Harald V, did not look for a bride among the royal blood. While still crown prince, he fell in love with Sonja Haraldsen, with whom he secretly dated for nine years. Sonya came from a wealthy family and was involved in design, but according to the laws of that time, Harald could not marry her. When he threatened to abdicate the throne in order to marry her, the Norwegian government decided to revise the law on succession to the throne. As a result, Harald married his chosen one in 1968. He was followed by the Swedish king Carl XVI Gustav, who made Sylvia Sommerlath of German-Brazilian origin his queen.
From Swedish royal family Another legal precedent is connected: Queen Silvia gave birth to her daughter Victoria first, and Prince Carl Philip was born second. According to the then Swedish laws, Karl Philip should have a primary right to the throne. But since Victoria was first proclaimed crown princess, after the birth of the prince there was a serious debate about whether to transfer the title of heir to the newborn boy or leave it to Victoria. A more liberal point of view won, so now Victoria is first in line to the Swedish throne (by the way, in 2010 she married her fitness trainer).
King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden and Queen Silvia at the celebration of the 40th anniversary of his coronation, September 15, 2013
// wikipedia.org
Nowadays, visits of kings and members of their families to other countries, including Russia, are an important occasion for strengthening international ties, especially in business. For many businessmen and company representatives great importance have meetings at the level of heads of state, which formally are the kings of Sweden, Norway and the Queen of Denmark.
Norway is a more democratic country, its inhabitants do not often remember the king, and even the heir to the throne, Haakon, while studying at the naval school, did not particularly advertise his origin, lived among the other students, and was not recognized until a rumor spread about that he is from the royal family. After finishing his studies at Berkeley, he wanted to give up the throne altogether, and besides, he had all the data for a good start in ordinary life: education, capital, the opportunity to get a job. Good work. In the modern world, a lot of formalities that burden the lives of royal families seem completely unnecessary, and at the same time they do not give real powers. Naturally, sometimes the temptation is great to give up the crown. However, the prince was persuaded not to leave the throne: after all, he had a duty to his homeland. Nevertheless, he, like his “colleagues,” married a girl of non-royal blood, whose biography was also the subject of widespread discussion: by the time of the engagement, she had already given birth to a child, whose father was in prison at that time for drug trafficking, and she herself she admitted to using them. Nevertheless, after deliberation, the government agreed to this marriage, but her son did not receive a noble title.
Lifestyle of Monarchs
The royal family is not entirely, but only partially, as a rule, supported by the state budget. There is, of course, the so-called civil list - the amount allocated from the budget for the maintenance of the monarch, his family, home, court, as well as expenses for art and charity. Sometimes this amount can be quite large. In Great Britain, in 2012, the civil list was abolished and replaced by a royal grant, which is now re-approved annually. This is due to the fact that in England the amount of the civil list was usually approved for the entire period of the monarch’s reign, but over the past decades the pound sterling has noticeably depreciated.
Buckingham Palace, official residence of British monarchs
// wikipedia.org
In Sweden, the size of the civil sheet is approved by the Riksdag. But in addition, the king has, for example, his own farm. And the most common type of business for royal families is the exploitation of their own title and image of the royal family. IN large quantities postcards, books, brochures, and all kinds of souvenirs are produced, which ultimately bring significant income to families. Publications about newborns in the royal family are published almost every year - the whole country can follow the growing up of the heir. The royal family usually has its own photographer, who has the right to arrange photo sessions for them for such souvenir publications. This kind of product is usually very popular with tourists and generally works to maintain the image of the monarchy.
The symbolism of the monarchy is reflected in many state symbols, in particular on state money. The rulers themselves take part in this: for example, in Denmark, Queen Margrethe II of her youth was traditionally depicted on coins, and when the question arose of making her image more relevant, to reflect age-related changes, she herself spoke out in favor of this.
The same Danish queen has a husband who is a Frenchman of non-royal origin, so his title is only Prince Consort. However, neither the queen nor the prince consort has real power. They can participate in the opening of parliament and formally approve the composition of the government - after all, the queen is formally the head of the executive branch. These are all symbols of royal power. And even radical left parties are not so actively in favor of introducing a republic - the image of a monarchy is so familiar and important.
Queen Margrethe II of Denmark and Prince Consort Henrik of Denmark in Stockholm, at the wedding of Princess Victoria of Sweden, 2010
// wikipedia.org
Monarchies during World War II
During the Second World War, when Denmark and Norway were occupied by the Germans, the Norwegian king managed to emigrate to England. Nevertheless, he was considered the commander-in-chief of the Norwegian armed forces that resisted the Germans, and said that the fight did not stop as long as there was at least one occupier on Norwegian territory. His wife and son were in Sweden at the time, and Norway actually surrendered to the Germans in June 1940. The Germans planned to declare the four-year-old prince ruler and appoint regents, so it was necessary to remove the Norwegian royal family from Sweden. This was done with the help of special services through the territory of Finland, adjacent to the ocean. Then they were transported to America.
The royal family and the little prince became a symbol of resistance, and he was even enlisted in the Norwegian air force, which was based in Canada. Photos of a little boy in military uniform were distributed everywhere. The Danish king found himself under house arrest in Copenhagen. Nevertheless, he performed various symbolic actions: he rode out on horseback, walked without guards. Crowds often gathered around him - this was such a sign of Danish resistance to the initially mild German occupation. After the war, there was no longer much republican sentiment in Northern Europe. Now the royal families in these countries are an important symbol.
From absolute to constitutional monarchy: the example of Sweden
The transition from absolute monarchies to constitutional ones occurred gradually. In England this happened at the beginning of the 18th century, and before that, as you know, there was. In Sweden, starting from the 16th century, the Vasa dynasty ruled (before that the country was under the control of Denmark), and from that moment they began their new story. They had a so-called mixed monarchy: there was a king, there was an aristocracy, and there was a parliament - the Riksdag. And each was considered a source of power, so there was a constant struggle between them. Moreover, the Riksdag included four classes: nobility, clergy, burghers and peasants, which did not exist in other countries. Therefore, the internal political history of Sweden for a long time was like a tug-of-war: for example, in 1632 the king died, his six-year-old daughter Christina remained queen, under whom a regency council was immediately created, the aristocrats began to empty the treasury, take over their possessions, and so on. However, when the queen matured and came of age, they had to stop. Christina was a strong ruler, very educated, but she soon became tired of power and in 1654 abdicated the throne, bequeathing the rule to her husband Carl Gustav of the Palatinate. After him, royal power and absolutism were successfully developed by Charles XI, and then Charles XII, well known in Russia thanks to.
Charles XII, King of Sweden from 1697 to 1718
// wikipedia.org
It is noteworthy that in Denmark and Sweden at that moment there was so-called constitutional absolutism, no matter how contradictory it may sound. The laws stated that all power belonged to the king. Charles XII was already an absolute monarch, although the Riksdag remained under him, but the State Council became royal with advisory functions. But, as we know, Charles XII devoted himself foreign policy and wars and therefore left no heirs. Moreover, having left Stockholm in 1700, he never returned there. His military campaigns were greatly undermined financial condition countries. In addition, Swedish noblewomen simply had no one to marry: all the young nobility went to fight with the king, many died. Many had to marry commoners and lose their noble status.
Charles XII died during the campaign against Norway. His death has long been the subject of controversy and all sorts of conspiracy theories: was he killed by his enemies, or by his own people who were tired of fighting, or even by the British? As a result, after his death, two of his sisters remained, one of whom, Ulrika Eleonora, the wife of a Hessian prince, became queen. But she was forced to sign many conditions, as a result of which she practically lost power.
This period of increasing civil rights lasted until 1772 and was called the “Era of Liberty.” In 1772, King Gustav III carried out a coup and temporarily restored absolutism, becoming one of the enlightened rulers of Europe. It is noteworthy that he communicated and corresponded quite a lot with Catherine II (not so long ago their complete correspondence was published - in French, of course; it is curious that they mainly discussed not politics, but raising children and other everyday issues). But in 1792 he was killed at the opera. The throne was taken by his son, Gustav IV, who was overthrown in 1809. His uncle, Gustav III's brother, Duke Karl of Södermanland, who went down in history under the name Charles XIII, ascended the throne. But he was already old and had no legal heirs. His reign occurred during the era of the Napoleonic Wars. Everything that happened ended with Napoleonic Marshal Jean-Baptiste Jules Bernadotte coming to power, who founded a new dynasty that rules in Sweden to this day. The descendants of Jean-Baptiste in the last quarter of the 19th century carried out a number of reforms that contributed to the expansion of the powers of the Riksdag, as a result of which Sweden finally became a constitutional monarchy.
This term has other meanings, see Elizabeth II (meanings). Elizabeth II Elizabeth II ... Wikipedia
Rothschilds- (Rothschilds) The Rothschilds are the most famous dynasty of European bankers, financial tycoons and philanthropists. The Rothschild dynasty, representatives of the Rothschild dynasty, the history of the dynasty, Mayer Rothschild and his sons, the Rothschilds and conspiracy theories,... ... Investor Encyclopedia
Plato Mononyms (ancient Greek ... Wikipedia
The style of this article is non-encyclopedic or violates the norms of the Russian language. The article should be corrected according to the stylistic rules of Wikipedia... Wikipedia
- گورکانیان ← ... Wikipedia
Bible. Dilapidated and New Testaments. Synodal translation. Biblical encyclopedia arch. Nikifor.
church- church (Matt. 18:17; Acts 12:5; Rom. 16:4,5; 1 Cor. 7:17; 1 Cor. 14:34; 1 Cor. 16:19) this word is currently understood : a) worldwide religious organization or separately each of more than 200 different modern... ... Complete and detailed Bible Dictionary to the Russian Canonical Bible
Institute of the Roman Catholic Church for the search and punishment of heretics and other enemies Catholic Church. Although this organization was created at the beginning of the 13th century. to combat the Albigensian heresy in France, but its origins should be seen in more... ... Collier's Encyclopedia
RUBROOK (French Rubrouck, flam. Roebroeck, lat. Rubruquis) Willem (Guillaume) de (c. 1215 - c. 1295), knight of the French king Louis IX Saint (see LOUIS IX Saint), participant crusades, and then a Franciscan monk (see FRANCISCANS) ... encyclopedic Dictionary
Reformation 95 Theses Formula of Concord Counter-Reformation ... Wikipedia
Books
- Duke of Marlborough. Person, commander, politician, Ivonina Lyudmila Ivanovna. The hero of this book is the famous English commander and politician Duke John of Marlborough. He was perhaps the most famous person in Europe at the beginning of the Age of Enlightenment, and his opinion is almost...
- Duke of Marlborough The man is a commander and politician, Ivonina L.. The hero of this book is the famous English commander and politician Duke John of Marlborough. He was perhaps the most famous person in Europe at the beginning of the Age of Enlightenment, and his opinion was almost...
