Terrain orientation and types of orientation. Sports orienteering. Essence, rules, position. Orientation by the Sun

When performing many combat missions, commanders' actions are inevitably related to terrain orientation. The ability to navigate is necessary, for example, on the march, in battle, in reconnaissance to maintain the direction of movement, target designation, drawing landmarks, targets and other objects on a map (terrain diagram), control of a unit and fire. Knowledge and skills in orienteering consolidated by experience help to more confidently and successfully perform combat missions in various combat conditions and on unfamiliar terrain.

Find your bearings- this means determining your location and directions to the sides of the horizon relative to surrounding local objects and relief forms, finding the indicated direction of movement and accurately maintaining it along the way. When orienting in a combat situation, the location of the unit relative to friendly and enemy troops, the location of landmarks, and the direction and depth of operations are also determined.

The essence of orientation. Terrain orientation can be general or detailed.

General orientation consists in approximate determination of one’s location, direction of movement and the time required to reach the final destination of movement. This orientation is most often used on the march, when the crew of the vehicle does not have a map, but uses only a pre-compiled diagram or list settlements and other landmarks along the route. To maintain the direction of movement in this case, it is necessary to constantly monitor the time of movement, the distance traveled, determined by the speedometer of the car, and control the passage of settlements and other landmarks according to the diagram (list).

Detailed orientation is to accurately determine your location and direction of movement. It is used when orienting using a map, aerial photographs, land navigation instruments, when moving in azimuth, plotting explored objects and targets on a map or diagram, when determining achieved boundaries, and in other cases.

When navigating the terrain, the simplest elements are widely used. ways of orientation: using a compass, celestial bodies and signs of local objects, as well as a more complex method - orientation on a map.

2. Orientation on the terrain without a map: determining the sides of the horizon by celestial bodies and signs of local objects

To find the direction according to the cardinal points, first determine the north-south direction; after which, facing north, the determiner will have to the right - east, to the left - west. The cardinal directions are usually found using a compass, and in the absence of one, using the Sun, Moon, stars and some signs of local objects.

2.1 Determination of directions to the sides of the horizon using celestial bodies

In the absence of a compass or in areas of magnetic anomalies, where the compass can give erroneous readings (readings), the sides of the horizon can be determined by the celestial bodies: during the day - by the Sun, and at night - by the North Star or the Moon.

According to the Sun

In the northern hemisphere, the sunrise and sunset locations by season are as follows:

in winter the Sun rises in the southeast and sets in the southwest;
in summer the Sun rises in the northeast and sets in the northwest;
In spring and autumn, the Sun rises in the east and sets in the west.

The sun is approximately at 7.00 in the east, at 13.00 in the south, at 19.00 in the west. The position of the Sun at these hours will indicate the directions east, south and west, respectively.

The shortest shadow from local objects occurs at 13 o'clock, and the direction of the shadow from vertically located local objects at this time will point to the north.

To more accurately determine the sides of the horizon based on the Sun, wristwatches are used.

Rice. 1. Determining the sides of the horizon by the Sun and the clock. a – up to 13 hours; b – after 13 hours.

Rice. 2. Determining the sides of the horizon by the North Star

By the Moon

For approximate orientation (see Table 1), you need to know that in the summer in the first quarter the Moon is in the south at 19 a.s., at 1 a.m. - in the west, in the last quarter at 1 a.m. - in the east, at 7 a.m. - in the south.

During a full moon at night, the sides of the horizon are determined in the same way as by the Sun and the clock, and the Moon is taken for the Sun (Fig. 3).

According to the Sun and the clock

In a horizontal position, the clock is set so that the hour hand is directed towards the Sun. The angle between the hour hand and the direction towards number 1 on the watch dial is divided in half by a straight line, which indicates the direction to the south. Before noon, it is necessary to divide in half the arc (angle) that the arrow must pass before 13.00 (Fig. 1, a), and after noon - the arc that it passed after 13.00 (Fig. 1, b).

By the North Star

The North Star is always in the north. To find the North Star, you must first find the constellation Ursa Major, which resembles a bucket made up of seven fairly bright stars. Then, through the two rightmost stars of the Ursa Major, mentally draw a line on which to plot the distance between these extreme stars five times, and then at the end of this line we will find the Polar Star, which, in turn, is located in the tail of another constellation called Ursa Minor. Facing the North Star, we will get the direction to the north (Fig. 2).

Rice. 3. Determining the sides of the horizon by the moon and the clock.

Table 1

Cardinal directions	First quarter (visible, right half of the Moon's disk)	Full Moon (the entire disk of the Moon is visible)	Last quarter (the left half of the Moon's disk is visible)
In the east	-	19 hours	01 o'clock (night)
	19 hours	01 o'clock (night)	07 o'clock (am)
In the West	01 o'clock (night)	07 o'clock (am)

2.2 Determination of directions to the sides of the horizon based on signs of local objects

If there is no compass and the heavenly bodies are not visible, then the sides of the horizon can be determined by some signs of local objects.

By melting snow

It is known that the southern side of objects heats up more than the northern side, and accordingly, the melting of snow on this side occurs faster. This is clearly visible in early spring and during thaws in winter on the slopes of ravines, holes near trees, and snow stuck to stones.

By the shadow

At noon, the direction of the shadow (it will be the shortest) points north. Without waiting for the shortest shadow, you can navigate in the following way. Stick a stick about 1 meter long into the ground. Mark the end of the shadow. Wait 10-15 minutes and repeat the procedure. Draw a line from the first shadow position to the second and extend one step beyond the second mark. Place the toe of your left foot opposite the first mark, and the toe of your right foot at the end of the line you drew. You are now facing north.

For local subjects

It is known that resin protrudes more on the southern half of the coniferous tree trunk; ants make their homes on the southern side of the tree or bush and make the southern slope of the anthill flatter than the northern one (Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Determining the sides of the horizon

according to the characteristics of local objects. The bark of birch and pine on the northern side is darker than on the southern side, and tree trunks, stones, rock ledges are more densely covered with moss and lichens.

In large tracts of cultivated forest, the sides of the horizon can be determined by the clearings, which, as a rule, are cut strictly along the north-south and east-west lines, as well as by the inscriptions of block numbers on poles installed at the intersections of the clearings.

On each such pillar, in its upper part and on each of the four faces, numbers are affixed - the numbering of the opposite forest blocks; the edge between the two edges with the smallest numbers shows the direction to the north (the numbering of forest blocks in the CIS goes from west to east and further to the south).
By buildings

Buildings that are quite strictly oriented along the horizon include churches, mosques, and synagogues.

Altars and chapels of Christian and Lutheran churches face east, bell towers face west.

The lowered edge of the lower crossbar of the cross on the dome Orthodox Church facing south, raised - to the north.

The altars of Catholic churches are located on the western side.

The doors of Jewish synagogues and Muslim mosques face approximately north, their opposite sides are directed: the mosques face Mecca in Arabia, lying on the Voronezh meridian, and the synagogues face Jerusalem in Palestine, lying on the Dnepropetrovsk meridian.

Temples, pagodas, and Buddhist monasteries face south.

The exit from the yurts is usually made to the south.

In rural houses, more windows in living areas are cut on the south side, and the paint on the walls of buildings on the south side fades more and has a faded color.

3. Determination of the sides of the horizon, magnetic azimuths, horizontal angles and compass direction

3.1 Determination of directions to the sides of the horizon using a compass

Using a compass, you can most conveniently and quickly determine north, south, west and east (Fig. 5). To do this, you need to give the compass a horizontal position, release the arrow from the clamp, and let it calm down. Then the arrow-shaped end of the arrow will point north.

Rice. 5 Determining the sides of the horizon using a compass.

To determine the accuracy of the deviation of the direction of movement from the direction to the north or to determine the positions of terrain points in relation to the direction to the north and counting them, divisions are marked on the compass, of which the lower divisions are indicated in degree measures (the value of the division is 3 °), and the upper divisions of the protractor in tens of thousands. Degrees are counted clockwise from 0 to 360°, and protractor divisions are counted counterclockwise from 0 to 600°. The zero division is located at the letter “C” (north), and there is also a triangle glowing in the dark, which replaces the letter “C” in some compasses.

Under the letters “B” (east), “Y” (south), “3” (west) there are luminous dots. On the movable cover of the compass there is a sighting device (sight and front sight), against which luminous indicators are mounted, which serve to indicate the direction of movement at night. The most common compass in the army is the Andrianov system and the artillery compass.

When working with a compass, you should always remember that strong electromagnetic fields or nearby metal objects deflect the arrow from its correct position. Therefore, when determining compass directions, it is necessary to move 40-50 m away from power lines, railroad tracks, military vehicles and other large metal objects.

Determining directions to the sides of the horizon using a compass is performed as follows. The sighting device's front sight is placed on the zero scale division, and the compass is placed in a horizontal position. Then the brake of the magnetic needle is released and the compass is turned so that its northern end coincides with the zero reading. After this, without changing the position of the compass, a distant landmark is noticed by sighting through the rear sight and front sight, which is used to indicate the direction to the north.

Rice. 6. Relative position of the sides of the horizon> Directions to the sides of the horizon are interconnected (Fig. 6), and if at least one of them is known, the rest can be determined.

The opposite direction to north will be south, to the right is east, and to the left is west.

3.2 Determination of magnetic azimuth by compass

Magnetic direction azimuth determined using a compass (Fig. 7). At the same time, the brake of the magnetic needle is released and the compass is turned in a horizontal plane until the northern end of the needle is positioned against the zero division of the scale.

Then, without changing the position of the compass, install the sighting device so that the line of sight through the rear sight and front sight coincides with the direction of the object. The scale reading against the front sight corresponds to the value of the determined magnetic azimuth of the direction to the local object.

The direction azimuth from the standing point to a local object is called direct magnetic azimuth. In some cases, for example, to find a return path, they use reverse magnetic azimuth, which differs from the straight line by 180°. To determine the reverse azimuth, you need to add 180° to the forward azimuth if it is less than 180°, or subtract 180° if it is greater than 180°.

Rice. 7. Determination of the magnetic azimuth direction to a separate tree

3.3 Determination of horizontal angles using a compass

First, the front sight of the compass sighting device is set to zero on the scale. Then, by turning the compass in a horizontal plane, align the line of sight through the rear sight and front sight with the direction to the left object (landmark).

After this, without changing the position of the compass, the sighting device is moved to the direction of the right object and a reading is taken on the scale, which will correspond to the value of the measured angle in degrees.

When measuring an angle in thousandths The line of sight is first aligned with the direction towards the right object (landmark), since the count of thousandths increases counterclockwise.

4. Methods for determining distances on the ground and target designation

4.1. Methods for determining distances on the ground

Very often it is necessary to determine distances to various items on the ground. Distances are most accurately and quickly determined using special instruments (rangefinders) and rangefinder scales of binoculars, stereo scopes, and sights. But due to the lack of instruments, distances are often determined using improvised means and by eye.

Common methods for determining the range (distances) to objects on the ground include the following: by the angular dimensions of the object; by linear dimensions of objects; eye; by visibility (discernibility) of objects; by sound, etc.

Rice. 8. Determination of distances by the angular dimensions of an object (subject)

Determination of distances by angular dimensions objects (Fig. 8) is based on the relationship between angular and linear quantities. The angular dimensions of objects are measured in thousandths using binoculars, observation and aiming devices, a ruler, etc.

Some angular values (in thousandths of the distance) are given in Table 2.

table 2

The distance to objects in meters is determined by the formula: , where B is the height (width) of the object in meters; Y is the angular magnitude of the object in thousandths.

For example (see Fig. 8):

Determining distances by linear dimensions of objects is as follows (Fig. 9). Using a ruler located at a distance of 50 cm from the eye, measure the height (width) of the observed object in millimeters. Then the actual height (width) of the object in centimeters is divided by that measured using a ruler in millimeters, the result is multiplied by a constant number 5 and the desired height of the object in meters is obtained:

Rice. 9. Determination of distances by linear dimensions of an object (subject)

For example, a distance between telegraph poles equal to 50 m (Fig. 8) is closed on the ruler by a segment of 10 mm. Therefore, the distance to the telegraph line is:

The accuracy of determining distances by angular and linear values is 5-10% of the length of the measured distance. To determine distances based on the angular and linear dimensions of objects, it is recommended to remember the values (width, height, length) of some of them, given in table. 3.

Table 3

Item	Dimensions, m
Item	Height	Length	Width
Medium tank	2-2,5	6-7	3-3 5
Armored personnel carrier	2	5-6	2-2,4
Motorcycle with sidecar	1	2	1,2
Freight car	2-2,5	5-6	2-3,5
A car	1,6	4	1,5
Four-axle passenger car	4	20	3
Four-axle railway tank	3	9	2,8
Wooden communication line pole	5-7	-	-
Average height man	1,7	-	-

Determining distances by eye

Eye-measuring- this is the simplest and quick way. The main thing in it is the training of visual memory and the ability to mentally lay down a well-imagined constant measure on the ground (50, 100, 200, 500 meters). Having fixed these standards in memory, it is not difficult to compare with them and estimate distances on the ground.

When measuring distance by successively mentally setting aside a well-studied constant measure, one must remember that the terrain and local objects seem reduced in accordance with their distance, that is, when removed by half, the object will seem half as large. Therefore, when measuring distances, the mentally plotted segments (measures of terrain) will decrease according to the distance.

The following must be taken into account:

the closer the distance, the clearer and sharper the visible object seems to us;
the closer an object is, the larger it appears;
larger objects seem closer than small objects located at the same distance;
an object of a brighter color appears closer than an object of a dark color;
brightly lit objects seem closer to dimly lit ones that are at the same distance;
during fog, rain, twilight, cloudy days, when the air is saturated with dust, observed objects seem further away than on clear and sunny days;
the sharper the difference in color of the object and the background against which it is visible, the more reduced the distances seem; for example, in winter a snow field seems to bring the darker objects on it closer;
objects on flat terrain seem closer than on hilly terrain, distances defined across vast expanses of water seem especially shortened;
folds of the terrain (river valleys, depressions, ravines), invisible or not fully visible to the observer, conceal the distance;
when observing while lying down, objects seem closer than when observing while standing;
when observed from the bottom up - from the bottom of the mountain to the top, objects seem closer, and when observed from top to bottom - further;
when the sun is behind the soldier, the distance disappears; shines into the eyes - it seems larger than in reality;
The fewer objects there are in the area under consideration (when observed through a body of water, a flat meadow, steppe, arable land), the smaller the distances seem.

The accuracy of the eye meter depends on the training of the soldier. For a distance of 1000 m, the usual error ranges from 10-20%.

Determination of distances by visibility (discernibility) of objects

With the naked eye, you can approximately determine the distance to targets (objects) by the degree of their visibility. A soldier with normal visual acuity can see and distinguish some objects from the following maximum distances indicated in Table 4.

It must be borne in mind that the table indicates the maximum distances from which certain objects begin to be visible. For example, if a serviceman saw a pipe on the roof of a house, this means that the house is no more than 3 km away, and not exactly 3 km. It is not recommended to use this table as a reference. Each serviceman must individually clarify this data for himself.

Table 4

Objects and attributes	The distances from which they become visible (discernible)
Separate small house, hut	5 km
Pipe on the roof	3 km
Airplane on the ground tank in place	1 2 km
Tree trunks, kilometer poles and communication line poles	1.0 km
Movement of the legs and arms of a running or walking person	700 m
Heavy machine gun, mortar, anti-tank gun, wire fence stakes	500 m
Light machine gun, rifle, color and parts of clothing on a man, the oval of his face	250 - 300 m
Roof tiles, tree leaves, wire on stakes	200 m
Buttons and buckles, details of a soldier's weapons	100 m
Human facial features, hands, details of small arms	100 m

Orientation by sounds.

At night and in fog, when observation is limited or impossible at all (and in very rough terrain and in the forest, both at night and during the day), hearing comes to the aid of vision.

Military personnel must learn to determine the nature of sounds (that is, what they mean), the distance to the sources of sounds and the direction from which they come. If different sounds are heard, the soldier must be able to distinguish them from one another. The development of such an ability is achieved through long-term training (in the same way a professional musician distinguishes the voices of instruments in an orchestra).

Almost all sounds that indicate danger are made by humans. Therefore, if a soldier hears even the faintest suspicious noise, he should freeze in place and listen. If the enemy starts moving first, thereby giving away his location, then he will be the first to be detected.

Quietly summer night even ordinary human voice in open space it can be heard far away, sometimes half a kilometer. On a frosty autumn or winter night, all kinds of sounds and noises can be heard very far away. This applies to speech, steps, and the clinking of dishes or weapons. In foggy weather, sounds can also be heard far away, but their direction is difficult to determine. On the surface of calm water and in the forest, when there is no wind, sounds travel a very long distance. But the rain greatly muffles the sounds. The wind blowing towards the soldier brings sounds closer and away from him. It also carries sound away, creating a distorted picture of the location of its source. Mountains, forests, buildings, ravines, gorges and deep hollows change the direction of sound, creating an echo. They also generate echoes and water spaces, facilitating its spread over long distances.

The sound changes when its source moves on soft, wet or hard soil, along the street, along a country or field road, on pavement or soil covered with leaves. It must be taken into account that dry soil transmits sounds better than air. At night, sounds are transmitted especially well through the ground. That’s why they often listen by putting their ears to the ground or tree trunks. The average range of audibility of various sounds during the day on flat terrain, km (in summer), is given in Table 5.

Table 5

Character of sound	Range audibility, m
The crack of a broken branch	Up to 80
Steps of a man walking along the road	40-100
Strike the oars on the water	Up to 1000
The blow of an ax, the ringing of a cross-saw	300-400
Digging trenches with shovels in hard ground	500-1000
Quiet conversation	200-300
Shout	1000-1500
The sound of metal parts of equipment	Up to 300
Loading small arms	Up to 500
Tank engine running on site	Up to 1000
Movement of troops on foot:
- on a dirt road	Up to 300
- along the highway	Up to 600
Vehicle movement:
- on a dirt road	Up to 500
- along the highway	Up to 1000
Tank movement:
- on a dirt road	Up to 1200
- along the highway	3000-4000
Shot:
- from a rifle	2000-3000
- from a gun	5000 or more
Gun firing	Up to 15000

To listen to sounds while lying down, you need to lie on your stomach and listen while lying down, trying to determine the direction of the sounds. This is easier to do by turning one ear in the direction from which the suspicious noise is coming. To improve audibility, it is recommended to apply bent palms, a bowler hat, or a piece of pipe to the auricle.

To better listen to sounds, you can put your ear to a dry board placed on the ground, which acts as a sound collector, or to a dry log dug into the ground.

Determining distances using the speedometer. The distance traveled by a car is determined as the difference between the speedometer readings at the beginning and end of the journey. When driving on hard-surfaced roads it will be 3-5%, and on viscous soil 8-12% more than the actual distance. Such errors in determining distances using the speedometer arise from wheel slip (track slippage), tire tread wear and changes in tire pressure. If you need to determine the distance traveled by the car as accurately as possible, you need to make an amendment to the speedometer readings. This need arises, for example, when moving in azimuth or when orienting using navigation devices.

The amount of correction is determined before the march. For this purpose, a section of the road is selected, which in terms of the nature of the relief and soil cover is similar to the upcoming route. This section is passed at marching speed in the forward and reverse directions, taking speedometer readings at the beginning and end of the section. Based on the data obtained, the average length of the control section is determined and the value of the same section, determined from a map or on the ground with a tape (roulette), is subtracted from it. Dividing the result obtained by the length of the section measured on the map (on the ground) and multiplying by 100, the correction factor is obtained.

For example, if the average value of the control section is 4.2 km, and the measured value on the map is 3.8 km, then the correction factor is:

Thus, if the length of the route measured on the map is 50 km, then the speedometer will read 55 km, i.e. 10% more. The difference of 5 km is the magnitude of the correction. In some cases it may be negative.

Measuring distances in steps. This method is usually used when moving in azimuth, drawing up terrain diagrams, drawing individual objects and landmarks on a map (scheme), and in other cases. Steps are usually counted in pairs. When measuring a long distance, it is more convenient to count steps in threes, alternately under the left and right foot. After every hundred pairs or triplets of steps, a mark is made in some way and the countdown begins again.

When converting the measured distance in steps into meters, the number of pairs or triplets of steps is multiplied by the length of one pair or triple of steps.

For example, there are 254 pairs of steps taken between turning points on the route. The length of one pair of steps is 1.6 m. Then:

Typically, the step of a person of average height is 0.7-0.8 m. The length of your step can be determined quite accurately using the formula:

Where D is the length of one step in meters; P is a person’s height in meters.

For example, if a person is 1.72 m tall, then his step length will be equal to:

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Determining distances geometric constructions on the ground. This method can be used to determine the width of difficult or impassable terrain and obstacles (rivers, lakes, flooded areas, etc.). Figure 10 shows the determination of the river width by constructing an isosceles triangle on the ground.

Since in such a triangle the legs are equal, the width of the river AB is equal to the length of the leg AC.

Point A is selected on the ground so that a local object (point B) on the opposite bank can be seen from it, and a distance equal to its width can be measured along the river bank.

Fig. 10. Determination of distances by geometric constructions on the ground. The position of point C is found by approximation, measuring the angle ACB with a compass until its value becomes equal to 45°.

Another version of this method is shown in Fig. 10, b.

Point C is selected so that the angle ACB is equal to 60°.

It is known that the tangent of an angle of 60° is equal to 1/2, therefore, the width of the river is equal to twice the distance AC.
In both the first and second cases, the angle at point A should be equal to 90°.

Orientation by light very convenient for maintaining direction or for determining the position of an object on the ground. Moving at night towards a light source is most reliable. The distances at which light sources can be detected by the naked eye at night are given in Table 6.

Table 6

4.2. Target designation

Target designation – this is the ability to quickly and correctly indicate targets, landmarks and other objects on the ground. Target designation has important practical significance for controlling a unit and fire in battle. Target designation can be carried out either directly on the ground or from a map or aerial photograph.

When designating targets, the following basic requirements are observed: indicate the location of targets quickly, briefly, clearly and accurately; indicate goals in a strictly established order, using accepted units of measurement; the transmitter and the receiver must have common landmarks and firmly know their location, and have a uniform coding of the area.

Target designation on the ground is carried out from a landmark or in azimuth and range to the target, as well as by pointing the weapon at the target.

Target designation from a landmark- the most common method. First, the closest landmark to the target is named, then the angle between the direction to the landmark and the direction to the target in thousandths, and the distance of the target from the landmark in meters. For example: “Landmark two, forty-five to the right, then a hundred, there is an observer at a separate tree.”

If the transmitting and receiving target have observation devices, then instead of the distance of the target from the landmark, it can be indicated vertical angle between the reference and the target in thousandths. For example: “Landmark four, thirty to the left, ten below - a combat vehicle in a trench.”

In some cases, especially when issuing target designation for unobtrusive targets, local objects located near the target are used. For example: “Landmark two, thirty to the right - a separate tree, further two hundred - ruins, twenty to the left, under a bush - a machine gun.”

Target designation by azimuth and range to the target.

The azimuth of the direction to the appeared target is determined using a compass in degrees, and the distance to it in meters using binoculars (observation device) or by eye. Having received this data, they transmit it, for example: "Thirty-two, seven hundred - a fighting machine."

Target designation by pointing a weapon at a target

Targets spotted on the battlefield must be immediately reported to the commander and their location correctly indicated. The target is indicated by verbal report or tracer bullets.

The report should be concise, clear and precise, for example: “There’s a wide bush straight ahead, a machine gun on the left.” “The second landmark, two fingers to the right, under the bush there is an observer.” When designating targets with tracer bullets, fire one or two short bursts in the direction of the target.

| Lesson plan for the academic year | Location orientation

Basics of life safety
6th grade

Lesson 2
Location orientation

The ability to navigate the terrain is the first condition for a person’s safe stay in natural conditions. Navigating the terrain means being able to:

☛ determine the sides of the horizon and imagine where the south, north, east and west are;
☛ determine your location on the ground relative to local objects, as well as relief forms (hill, ravine, river bank, etc.);
☛ choose the desired direction of movement to get to the intended place;
☛ maintain the chosen direction while moving so as not to stray from the intended path.

When orienting in natural conditions First of all, you must first of all have a good knowledge of the most characteristic local objects along the route (a fork in the road, a characteristic bend in the river, a single tree, a forest clearing, etc.), which must be used as beacons indicating your location and the desired direction of movement.

To determine the sides of the horizon, you must be able to use a compass, the sun and a clock, and determine the sides of the horizon by the North Star.

To navigate the area, if the show takes place along a route unknown to you, you must be able to navigate using a compass and map.

Methods for determining the sides of the horizon

The sides of the horizon on the ground can be determined by a compass, by celestial bodies (the sun and stars) and by some signs of local objects.

Note that to determine the sides of the horizon, it is enough to know the direction to the north. If it is known and you stand facing north, then there will be east on the right, west on the left, and south on the back.

The simplest and most reliable device for determining the sides of the horizon is a compass. The most common type of compass is the Andrianov system compass.

In tourist practice, the Sport-3 liquid compass has found the widest use.

To determine the sides of the horizon it is necessary to place the compass horizontally, release the brake of the magnetic needle and turn the compass box so that the northern end of the magnetic needle coincides with the zero division of the scale. In this position, the compass needle shows the direction north - south and the letters S, S, B, 3 on the compass scale will respectively face north, south, east and west.

Determining the sides of the horizon on the ground can be done by the sun and the clock. This method is less accurate than the first (since our watches do not show local time, but zone time), but for the practice of orienteering on the ground it is quite acceptable. In addition, it is necessary to remember that in Russia the clock hands are moved 1 hour forward and noon (the time when the sun is in the south) for residents of the Northern Hemisphere occurs not at 12 o'clock, but at 1 o'clock in the afternoon (13 o'clock).

Taking this into account, the sides of the horizon based on the sun and the clock are determined in the following sequence: the clock is held horizontally so that the hour hand is directed towards the sun; mentally divide the angle formed between the hour hand and the direction from the center of the dial to the number 1 in half, i.e., draw the bisector of this angle. The line dividing this angle in half will indicate the direction to the south.

The sides of the horizon can be approximately determined by the sun and the clock in another way.

From your geography course, you know that the Earth makes a full revolution of 360° in 24 hours. This means that the sun moves along the horizon from east to west by 15° in 1 hour. Thus, if the sun at noon in the Northern Hemisphere is in the south, what corresponds to 180° on the compass scale, then at 17:00 it will be in the southwest: (17:00 - 14:00) x 15° = 45°; 180° + 45° = 225° - on a compass this corresponds to the southwest direction. At 20 o'clock the sun will move by 90° and will be in the west (180° + 90° = 270°). Thus, by looking at the sun and the clock, you can approximately determine the sides of the horizon.

The sides of the horizon can also be determined by some local objects, including the direction of the clearings and digitization on quarter posts. Clearings in the forest are usually cut almost strictly along the lines north - south and east - west. At the ends of the pillars installed at the intersections of the clearings, the blocks are numbered from west to east (from left to right). Thus, the smallest number is located on the northwestern section of the pillar, and the next in order is on the northeastern section. These two numbers indicate the north direction.

When orienting by local objects, you can use the following characteristics: on the northern side, the bark of single trees is rougher than on the southern side; the trunks of the pine trees turn black from the north after the rain; mosses and lichens cover the northern side of trees, stones, and stumps more abundantly; resin on coniferous trees protrudes more strongly on the south side; The northern part of the anthill is located on the southern side of the trees.

Determining the sides of the horizon at night
Determining the sides of the horizon by quarter pillars

The easiest way to determine the sides of the horizon at night is to determine it by the North Star, which indicates the direction north. To navigate by the North Star, you first need to find the constellation Ursa Major in the sky - these are seven bright stars located in the sky in the form of a large bucket. Mentally draw a straight line through the two outermost stars of the bucket of the Ursa Major constellation, on which mentally set aside from the end of the bucket a segment equal to five distances between these stars. At the end of the segment you will see a bright star, which is located in the constellation (also a bucket) Ursa Minor. This is the North Star. If you stand facing it, then in front there will be a direction to the north, behind - to the south, on the right - to the east, on the left - to the west.

However, even at night, the most reliable way to determine the sides of the horizon is with the help of a compass. When determining the sides of the horizon, it is better to use several methods to avoid mistakes.

Orientation, in a broad sense, is the determination of one’s location in the surrounding space.

Location orientation involves the ability to determine one’s location on the ground using a compass and map or other signs, the ability to move in the right direction and reach the intended point.

For survival in extreme conditions, terrain orientation becomes of utmost importance. And loss of orientation is one of the most common causes of accidents.

In such cases, the first thing to do is to re-orientate yourself and establish your location.

Further movement can lead to serious consequences and aggravate the situation. Any doubt about the correctness of orientation on the ground should be interpreted as loss of orientation.

A person, in such a situation, involuntarily takes wishful thinking and is inclined to consider any similar landmark as the desired one. And moving along dubious directions and landmarks, cutting corners, moving straight ahead and approximate calculation of the distance traveled leads to the fact that the group cannot return to its route.

Therefore, if you were unable to determine your location, you need to return to the point where it was not in doubt. You can continue moving only after re-orienting yourself to the area and correcting the error.

Ways to navigate the terrain.

Orientation using a compass.

Orientation on the terrain should begin with determining the sides of the horizon using a compass. In this case, it is necessary to take into account

To do this, if there is a map, the compass is placed on it and the north-south direction of its scale is aligned with the vertical line of the map coordinate grid. Then the map is oriented as accurately as possible according to landmarks on the ground. The deviation of the magnetic needle from the zero division of the compass scale will indicate the magnitude and direction of the magnetic declination.

Orientation on the map.

First, you need to orient the map using a compass, taking into account the magnitude and direction of the magnetic declination (western - to the left of the zero mark of the compass scale, eastern - to the right). If the value is less than 3º it can be ignored since this value is comparable to the compass error.

If we have two clearly defined landmarks, the map can be oriented according to them. To do this, we place it so that the line connecting them coincides with a similar line on the map, or the directions of other linear landmarks (roads, clearings, rivers) coincide.

After orienting yourself on the map, you can determine your location.

The first way to navigate the area is about the map.

To do this, if there is a good landmark nearby, a line is drawn on the map directed towards it and the distance is plotted on it (after measurement or approximately determined). The found point will indicate our location on the map.

The second way to navigate the area using a map.

If we are in the area on some line, for example on a road, then the direction line to the landmark at the intersection with the road indicates our location.

The third way to navigate the terrain using a map is resection. In this case, directions to several landmarks are superimposed on the map. The intersection point of these lines will indicate the location of the observer.

Orientation on the terrain by luminaries.

Orientation by the sun.

First, let's define the concepts of local, maternity and summer time.

Local (local solar or true solar) time is determined at noon, when the sun crosses the celestial meridian. This happens, respectively, at 12 o'clock in each time zone.

The values of maternity time and summer time are established by law for more complete use daylight hours and energy savings. Maternity time is set one hour ahead, and summer time is also set one hour ahead. When using maternity time and summer time at the same time, the difference with local time is 2 hours.

At noon local time, the shadow of objects is shortest and points north.

This factor can already help with orientation on the ground.

To determine the shortest shadow, you need to stick a peg into the ground around noon and mark the length of the shadow for two to three hours (the longer, the more accurate).

Here's a more accurate way. Using a thread, an hour or two before noon, draw a circle around the base of the peg with a radius the length of the shadow. As it approaches noon, the shadow will shorten, moving away from the circle line, then return to it. The middle of the line connecting the point where the shadow joins the circle will indicate the shortest shadow.

Orientation on the terrain using the moon.

By the shortest shadow from the moon, more or less accurately, the sides of the horizon can be determined when it is full.

In other cases, we must remember that in the waxing stage the moon is in the sky in the sector from the western horizon to the celestial meridian, and in the waning stage in the eastern sector of the sky. Its height at midnight directly depends on the fullness of the disk. What is he the fuller the more above the moon at midnight.

Orientation by the stars.

The well-known and most practical option for orientation is by the North Star, which is located almost above the North Pole. A perpendicular lowered from it to the horizon will indicate the direction to the north, that is, the direction of the true meridian.

You can find the North Star in the sky if you mentally draw a straight line through the two outermost stars of the bucket (not the handle) of the constellation Ursa Major upward in relation to the bucket. Then, mentally putting aside 5 distances between these stars on this line, we find the North Star. To check, let us clarify that it is the extreme star in the tail of Ursa Minor.

In the Southern Hemisphere, for orientation purposes, the direction to the south can be determined by the constellation Southern Cross. To do this, through the longer axis of the constellation towards the nearest horizon line, draw a line on which we plot five segments the distance between the stars of the constellation. From the found point we lower the perpendicular to the horizon. The intersection point on the horizon will indicate the south direction.

Orientation on the terrain based on local characteristics.

In nature, there are many signs by which you can determine the sides of the horizon. But you need to use local signs to navigate the terrain with caution and in a comprehensive manner. They can be formed under the influence of local conditions - prevailing winds, lighting and do not reflect the actual location of the sides of the horizon.

For example, in a forest, the crown of a tree may be thicker not on the south side of the trunk, but on the side where there is more light. The shape of the canopy of trees in open areas may depend on prevailing winds.

These same conditions can affect the density of annual rings on a tree cut.

The method of orientation on the ground and determining the sides of the horizon by bark and lichens is more reliable. On the northern side, the bark is darker and rougher, and there are more lichens on it.

On the south side the bark is lighter, and on the trunks of coniferous trees in hot weather the resin appears more abundantly.

On stones and boulders, lichens are more abundant on the northern side.

Anthills have a flatter southern side and are located on the southern side of objects protecting them - stones, trees, stumps, bushes.

Snow, especially in spring, melts earlier on the southern slopes of highlands and on the northern slopes of lowlands.

The melting hole near tree trunks and stones faces south.

At high elevations and low mountains (this is especially noticeable in mid-latitudes), the southern slopes are steppe, and the northern slopes are covered with forest. Often the forest border runs along the tops of mountains.

In the mountains, the snowmelt limit on the southern slopes is higher than on the northern ones.

Fruits in the crown of trees and bushes on the south side ripen faster.

A more reliable method of orientation on the ground is through clearings laid during forest management.

These clearings are laid from west to east and from north to south. Forest blocks are numbered in the same order. Therefore, on the quarter pillars, the numbers indicating the numbers of the quarters are smaller in value on the northern side.

In the northern high latitudes in the summer, the northern side of the sky is lighter. In winter, on the contrary, the southern side of the sky is brighter.

It should be remembered that when moving without landmarks in the forest or in the fog, a person, as a rule, cannot move in a straight line. The stride of the left leg is slightly longer. The walker usually describes a circle to the right with a diameter of about 3.5 kilometers. Perhaps a left-handed person is circling to the left. This needs to be checked.

Therefore, when moving in a dense forest, in fog, in order to navigate the terrain, you need to clearly imagine the sides of the horizon or move taking into account the position of the sun, the direction of the wind, and snow sastrugi.

We must remember terrain orientation according to local characteristics, it suggests using them in a complex.

After reading this article, you will become familiar with the concept of orientation. What does this concept mean, what are its methods and types, the history of orienteering - we will touch on all this in our story. First of all, you need to decide on the key term. Let's talk about such a concept as orientation. Each of us knows that such a concept exists. And many can even explain it: this is the ability to correctly determine the cardinal directions, as well as imagine the location of settlements and the direction of roads to the place where you are. You can always find your way if you know the location of the four cardinal directions. These are south (S), north (N), west (W) and east (E). Let's now talk in more detail about such a concept as orientation.

What is terrain orientation

This is a very broad concept. You can navigate by compass, map, sun, stars, clock, natural phenomena and signs, as well as various tips. For example, if you look out the window in the morning and see people walking with umbrellas, you will understand that it is raining outside. If you notice snow, dress warmer. This is, so to speak, “everyday” orientation.

What is orientation and why is it necessary? It represents one of the most important conditions, ensuring human life, as well as necessary for the successful solution of assigned tasks. Using the or card is easy. However, sometimes it is necessary to act without having either a compass or a map with you. Therefore, you should know other ways to navigate the terrain.

When preparing for a hike, you need to pay special attention to instilling the appropriate skills, methods, rules and techniques that will help you do without the use of a compass and map.

Orientation by the Sun

You may know that its rising and setting locations vary depending on the time of year. The sun rises in the southeast in winter and sets in the southwest. In summer, it rises in the northeast and sets in the northwest. In autumn and spring, the Sun rises in the east and sets in the west. It must be remembered that at noon it is always located towards the south, regardless of the time of year. At 13 o'clock the shortest shadow from objects is observed. At this time, its direction from objects located vertically points to the north. If the Sun is hidden by clouds, you can put a knife on your fingernail. A shadow will appear, at least a small one, and it will be clear where it is.

According to the Sun and the clock

Should be pointed at the Sun clockwise. The angle formed between the number 1 (13 o'clock) and the clockwise direction must be divided in half using an imaginary line. She will show you the direction: behind is north, in front is south. It must be remembered that the left corner should be divided before 13 o'clock and the right corner in the afternoon.

By the North Star

There are many ways to navigate the terrain. One of the most famous is based on the North Star. This star is always in the north. In order to find it, you must first find the constellation Ursa Major. This constellation resembles a bucket, which is formed from 7 stars, quite bright. Next, you should mentally draw a line through the 2 rightmost stars. On it you need to plot the distance between them, multiplied by five. At the end of the line we will find the North Star. It is located in the tail of Ursa Minor, another constellation. If we face this star, we will be facing north.

By the Moon

In order to navigate the terrain well, you need to remember that the Moon is visible in the south at 20 o’clock in the first quarter, and in the west at 2 o’clock in the morning. If we are talking about the last quarter, then in the east the Moon will be at 2 am, and in the south - at 8 am. The sides of the horizon at night during a full moon are determined in the same way as by the Sun and the clock. In this case, the Moon is used instead of the Sun. It must be remembered that when it is full, it opposes the Sun. In other words, it is located against him.

Method of orientation by melting snow

We continue to talk about what orientation in geography is. We have not yet described all of its methods. This article only talks about the main ones. One of the most common methods is to navigate by melting snow. The south side of all objects is known to heat up more than the north. This means that snow melts faster on this side as well. This is clearly visible in early spring, as well as in winter, during thaws, from the snow stuck to stones, holes near trees, and the slopes of ravines.

By the shadow

At noon, the shadow is shortest and its direction points north. To avoid waiting for it to appear, you can proceed as follows. You need to stick a stick into the ground, the length of which is approximately 1 m. Next you need to mark the end of its shadow. Then you should wait about 10-15 minutes, and then repeat the procedure. From the first to the second position of the shadow, you need to draw a line, and then extend it beyond the second mark by about a step. Stand with the toe of your left foot opposite the 1st mark, and place the toe of your right foot at the end of the line you drew. You are now facing north.

By buildings

A certain type of building is oriented strictly to the cardinal points. These include churches, synagogues, and mosques. The chapels and altars of Lutheran and peasant churches always face east, and the bell towers of these buildings always face west. You can also navigate by the dome of the Orthodox Church, or rather, by the cross on it. The edge of its lower crossbar, which is lowered, faces south, and is raised to the north. On the western side there are altars of Catholic churches. The doors of Muslim mosques and synagogues face approximately north.

Usually the exit from the yurts is to the south. In villages, houses have more windows on the south side. Another important sign is that on the south side, the paint on the walls of buildings fades more and takes on a faded color.

Clearings in the forest

You can determine the cardinal directions in cultivated forests by clearings. They are usually cut along east-west and north-south lines. You can also get your bearings by the inscriptions of block numbers, which are made on pillars placed at the intersection of clearings. At the top of each such pillar and on each of the 4 faces, numbers are placed. The north direction shows the edge between the two edges that have the smallest numbers on them.

no watch

If you lose or break your watch, you can find the local time with relative accuracy using a compass. For this purpose, azimuth orientation is used. What it is? It is necessary to measure the azimuth to the Sun. Once you determine it, you need to divide the resulting value by 15. This is the amount by which the Sun rotates per hour. The resulting number will indicate the time. For example, the azimuth to the Sun is 180°. Therefore, the time is 12 hours.

Orienteering

Surely you are familiar with the phrase “orienteering”. The sport is based on the fact that participants must pass control points located on the ground using a compass and a sports map. As a rule, results are determined by the time spent completing the distance (sometimes penalty time is taken into account). A calculation method based on the number of points scored by participants can also be used.

Today, competitions in this sport are held in various groups. They can be both by skill level and by age. The length of the distance and its difficulty are determined by the difficulty of the terrain and age group. The route (distance) must be unknown to all participants, and also contain certain difficulties that must be overcome, having good physical shape and the ability to navigate.

History of orienteering

Since ancient times, people have known what terrain orientation is. It is known that even then they used the skills and abilities associated with it. However, a review of historical facts usually begins with military competitions that were held in the northern states of Europe. It is believed that orienteering as a sport appeared at the end of the 19th century. It was then that the first competitions were organized between a number of military garrisons in Norway, Sweden, and Great Britain. On October 31, 1897, the first mass competitions among citizens were held. Thus, many people learned about what orienteering is, the definition of which in our time every schoolchild can give. However, the real birth of this sport took place in 1918. It was then that Major E. Killander from Stockholm decided to use environment rural Sweden to organize During the competition he created, runners not only ran, but also had to choose their own routes using a compass and map.

By 1934, orienteering as a sport had spread to Switzerland, Hungary and the USSR. National championships for women and men began to be held annually in Sweden, Finland and Norway by the beginning of World War II. In 1960, Open International competitions took place in the Stockholm area. Representatives from 7 countries took part in them. Today this sport is very popular. There are several of them: running, skiing, cycling, trail orienteering, etc. Competitions are held for each of them.

Now you can talk about what orienteering is. Tourism, sports, and survival in extreme conditions combine this concept. Orientation allows you to find your way anywhere on our planet in an unfamiliar area. Knowing its basics, you will not be afraid of getting lost in the forest or anywhere else.

6. Ways to navigate the terrain

Maintaining given directions and solving other orientation problems is carried out mainly using a topographic map - by visually comparing it with the terrain. A topographic map is a reliable guide. However, when operating at night and in terrain where orientation is difficult, it is not always possible to identify landmarks and follow the intended route.

Orientation on the map using the simplest navigation device - a magnetic compass - is the main and most widespread method of orientation. Although modern navigation equipment plays an increasingly important role, it is impossible to effectively use this equipment without a topographic map. Using the map, initial data for working with this equipment is prepared, and progress along the route is monitored.

Often you have to act without a map and compass. In such cases, you can navigate by the location of the heavenly bodies and by the signs of some local objects.

The accuracy of following the intended route and completing the task largely depends on the correct choice and skillful use of various methods and techniques of orientation.

When performing many tasks, the actions of managers, commanders and subordinates are inevitably associated with terrain orientation. The ability to navigate is necessary, for example, when maintaining the direction of movement of an investigative team to the scene of an incident located in a forest, for target designation, drawing landmarks, targets and other objects on a map (terrain diagram), controlling a unit and fire in battle during a special operation . Knowledge and skills in orienteering consolidated by experience help to more confidently and successfully perform tasks in various environmental conditions in unfamiliar terrain.

Find your bearings- means determining your location and directions to the sides of the horizon relative to surrounding local objects and relief forms, finding the indicated direction of movement and accurately maintaining it along the way. When orienting during a special operation, they determine the location of the unit relative to their units and illegal armed groups, the location of landmarks and the direction of action.

Landforms and local objects, relative to which they determine their location, as well as the position of targets (objects), indicate the direction of movement, are called landmarks. They are easily identified when viewing the surrounding area, as they stand out for their size, shape, and color.

Selecting and Using Landmarks . Landmarks are divided into area, linear and point. Area landmarks include settlements, individual forests, groves, lakes, swamps and other objects occupying large areas. Such landmarks are easily identified and remembered when exploring the area.

Linear landmarks are local objects and forms of relief that have a large extent with a relatively small width, for example, roads, rivers, canals, pipelines, power lines, communications, narrow hollows, etc. They are used, as a rule, to maintain direction movements 1.

Point landmarks include pipes of plants and factories, tower-type buildings, repeaters, road intersections, overpasses, pits and other local objects that occupy a small area. These landmarks are usually used to accurately determine one’s location, the position of targets, and indicate sectors of fire and observation lines.

Confident navigation on the ground largely depends on the correct choice of landmarks. So, to maintain the direction of movement during the day, landmarks are chosen that can be easily identified even when approaching them, for example, tower-type buildings, individual trees, i.e., point landmarks. However, at night such landmarks are poorly distinguishable from a distance, therefore, when visibility is limited, mainly linear and areal landmarks are used. Thus, when choosing landmarks, it is always necessary to take into account the conditions in which the unit will operate on the ground.

Methods of orientation on the ground. You can navigate the area using a topographic map and land navigation devices. A topographic map allows you to quickly understand the situation over a relatively large area of terrain, which makes orientation easier. Ground navigation devices allow you to accurately determine your location on the ground in any conditions and confidently maintain the desired direction of movement. At the same time, the simplest methods of orientation on the ground are widely used: by compass, by celestial bodies and by signs of local objects.

Topographical orientation involves orienting subordinates to the terrain. It helps subordinates quickly understand the location of landmarks, boundaries, goals and their tasks. Topographical orientation precedes tactical orientation and is an important primary stage in the work of a unit commander when assigning tasks to subordinates. In topographical orientation, they first indicate the direction to one of the sides of the horizon, usually to the north, then their location and the position of surrounding local objects, landforms and distances to them. For example: “North - railway bridge, we are at the “Round” height; on the right, 3 km - Ivanovka; straight ahead, 3 km - the Bezhitsa River, further, 6 km - the city of Kamensk; on the left, 3 km - Lake Shirokoe (Fig. 1). After this, the commander (chief) indicates landmarks and conducts tactical orientation for subordinates.

Rice. 1. Topographical orientation on the terrain.

Tactical orientation is carried out in order to clarify the position of armed groups of criminals (gangs), their special groups (units), neighbors, as well as to study the terrain. The leader (commander) conducts tactical orientation in the following sequence:

Standing facing the direction in which the armed criminals are located, indicates the direction to one of the sides of the horizon (usually the side of the horizon is indicated in the direction of the unit’s actions).

Determines its standing point relative to a clearly defined landmark (local object). If a map is used for orientation, then the square of the coordinate grid is also indicated.

Shows from right to left characteristic local objects, landforms, indicates the direction and distance to unobservable objects.

Assigns (specifies) from right to left and along the lines from himself in the direction of the actions of armed criminals;

Shows the starting line to units and groups.

Topographical orientation can be used when reporting your location via communications in cases where there is no map or orientation on the ground is lost. For example: “I’m on the mound. 2 km to the north - railway bridge; 900 m to the southwest - forest; 5 km to the south - a destroyed rural village.” Using the indicated landmarks (local objects), the leader (commander) determines the location of the unit on the topographic map. Therefore, during topographic orientation, the most characteristic areal and linear landmarks are selected, which can be easily and quickly found on the map. Terrain orientation can be general or detailed.

General orientation consists of approximate determination of one’s location, direction of movement and the time required to reach the final destination of movement.

Detailed orientation consists of accurately determining your location and direction of movement.

Determination of directions to the sides of the horizon. Directions to the sides of the horizon are determined by a compass, celestial bodies and some signs of local objects.

Orientation by compass. To determine the sides of the horizon, a compass is most often used. With the help of a compass you can navigate at any time of the day and in any weather. A compass allows you not only to find the sides of the horizon, but also to determine the desired direction of movement on the ground and accurately maintain this direction along the way.