Vocabulary composition of the Russian language. Passive vocabulary (archaisms, historicisms, neologisms). Stylistic functions of obsolete words. Moscow State University of Printing Historicisms and archaisms: the difference in concepts

The role of archaizing vocabulary is varied. Firstly, historicisms And archaisms perform the actual nominative function in scientific and historical works. When characterizing a particular era, it is necessary to call its basic concepts, objects, and everyday details in words that correspond to the given time.

In artistic and historical prose, outdated vocabulary performs nominative and stylistic functions. While helping to recreate the color of the era, it at the same time serves as a stylistic means of its artistic characterization. For this purpose they use historicisms And archaisms. A.S. Pushkin in the drama “Boris Godunov”, A.N. Tolstoy in the novel “Peter I” and others.

The actual lexical ones are used outdated names of people by position, occupation and in the novel by A.N. Tolstoy: bed keeper- boyar who looked after the royal bedroom; bell- bodyguard, squire and others.
Timing response is facilitated lexical-semantic and lexical-word-formative archaisms.

Outdated words(especially archaisms) also perform stylistic functions. Thus, they are often a means of creating a special solemnity, sublimity of the text - in A.S. Pushkin:
...The sound of chain mail and swords!
Be afraid, O army of foreigners
The sons of Russia moved;
Both old and young have risen: they fly at the daring.
They are also used as a figurative and expressive means, especially in combination with new words - in E. Yevtushenko: ... And the elevators stand cold and empty. Raised above the ground, like God's fingers.
Archaizing vocabulary can serve as a means of creating humor, irony, and satire. In this case, such words are used in an environment that is semantically alien to them.

Neologisms perform mainly a nominative function. However, in texts for which they are not objectively necessary, their use is determined by stylistic purposes.

Archaizing vocabulary often these days already has a special emotional and stylistic overtones ( sculptor- creator, inquire- ask, pride subjugular- forced and others). Therefore, the use of such words in texts (in particular, when translating them) should be approached in approximately the same way as vocabulary that is stylistically colored or fixed in a stylistic sense. Translation of archaic vocabulary and Russian proper neologisms(type collective farm) is often carried out by an exact literal rendering of the composition of a Russian word with a subsequent note ( kokoshnik - kokoshnik in English).
However, in any case, it is necessary first of all to understand the meaning of the words used (or translated), which denote objects that have long disappeared and are incomprehensible to modern speakers of the language.

There is some differentiation of words as they are used: words that name vital, necessary concepts do not age for centuries; others become archaic quite quickly. We stop using them due to the disappearance of the very concepts that these words denote, or because they are transformed into others, more modern and acceptable for a given era. The education system in Russia has changed - the words institute of noble maidens, classy lady, realist (student of a real school), schoolgirl have disappeared from our speech.

Words that served as names for disappeared objects, concepts, and phenomena are called historicisms. They occupy a completely special position in the language, being the only names for objects that have long disappeared from our everyday life. Therefore, historicisms do not and cannot have synonyms.

“Tiun” (tax collector), “bortnichat” (collecting honey from wild bees), etc. have now fallen out of everyday use, but when describing Ancient Rus' they act as Historicisms (in relation to modern times). The age of Historicisms can be calculated in centuries ("smerd", "boyar", "brother"), and decades ("NEPMAN", "educational program", "tax in kind"). In contrast to archaisms, Historicisms do not have their semantic equivalents in the lexical system of the modern language.

Now we don’t measure arshins, don’t bow to volost elders and clerks, and are happy to forget all the “unnecessary” words, as it seems to us. But in historical literature, in works of art telling about the past of our people, it is impossible not to use historicisms. They help to recreate the flavor of the era and give the description of the past a touch of historical authenticity. Historicisms are usually used in the language of works of art on historical themes during stylization, for example, “The princes rode around on horses in patterned cones, and the sweepers in bast shoes repelled the enemies in those stubborn battles!” (N. Aseev). : bursa, caftan, posadnik. Historicisms are found mainly in texts about the past (both scientific and artistic).

In addition to historicisms, other types of obsolete words are distinguished in our language. Have you ever observed how this or that word for some reason “falls into disgrace”? We use it less and less in speech, replacing it with another, and so it is gradually forgotten. For example, an actor was once called a performer, a comedian; they spoke not of a journey, but of a voyage, not of fingers, but of fingers, not of a forehead, but of a forehead. Such outdated words name completely modern objects, concepts that are now usually called differently.

New names have replaced the old ones, and they are gradually forgotten. Obsolete words that have modern synonyms that have replaced them in the language are called archaisms.

Archaisms are fundamentally different from historicisms. If historicisms are the names of outdated objects, then archaisms are outdated names of quite ordinary objects and concepts that we constantly encounter in life. These are words that have passed into passive stock due to the fact that the objects, phenomena, and concepts they denote - and exist to this day - have acquired other names.

Archaisms, and especially Old Slavonicisms, which have replenished the passive composition of the vocabulary, give the speech a sublime, solemn sound: Arise, prophet, and see, and listen, be fulfilled by my will, and, going around the seas and lands, burn the hearts of people with the verb! (P.).

Old Church Slavonic vocabulary was used in this function even in ancient Russian literature. In the poetry of classicism, acting as the main component of the odic vocabulary, Old Slavonicisms determined the solemn style of “high poetry.” In poetic speech of the 19th century. With the archaizing Old Church Slavonic vocabulary, the outdated vocabulary of other sources, and above all Old Russianisms, was stylistically equalized: Alas! Wherever I look, there are whips everywhere, glands everywhere, disastrous shame of laws, feeble tears of captivity (P.). Archaisms were the source of the national-patriotic sound of Pushkin’s freedom-loving lyrics and the poetry of the Decembrists. The tradition of writers turning to outdated high vocabulary in works of civil and patriotic themes is maintained in the Russian literary language in our time.

Archaisms and historicisms are used in works of art about the historical past of our country to recreate the flavor of the era; compare: How the prophetic Oleg is now preparing to take revenge on the unreasonable Khazars, he doomed their villages and fields for the violent raid to swords and fires; with his retinue, in Constantinople armor, the prince rides across the field on a faithful horse (P.). In the same stylistic function, outdated words are used in A.S. Pushkin’s tragedy “Boris Godunov”, in the novels of A.N. Tolstoy “Peter I”, A.P. Chapygin “Razin Stepan”, V. Ya. Shishkov “Emelyan Pugachev”, etc.

Obsolete words can be a means of speech characteristics of characters, for example, clergy, monarchs. Wed. Pushkin’s stylization of the Tsar’s speech:

I [Boris Godunov] reached the highest power;

I have been reigning peacefully for six years now.

But there is no happiness for my soul. Is not it

We fall in love and hunger from a young age

The joys of love, but only to quench

Heart-satisfying instant possession,

Are we already bored and languishing, having cooled down?

Archaisms, and especially Old Slavonicisms, are used to recreate the ancient oriental flavor, which is explained by the closeness of Old Slavonic speech culture to biblical imagery. Examples are also easy to find in the poetry of Pushkin ("Imitations of the Koran", "Gabriiliad") and other writers ("Shulamith" by A.I. Kuprin).

Highly outdated vocabulary can be subject to ironic rethinking and act as a means of humor and satire. The comical sound of outdated words is noted in everyday stories and satire of the 17th century, and later in epigrams, jokes, and parodies written by participants in linguistic polemics of the early 19th century. (members of the Arzamas society), who opposed the archaization of the Russian literary language.

In modern humorous and satirical poetry, outdated words are also often used as a means of creating an ironic coloring of speech: A worm, skillfully placed on a hook, enthusiastically said: - How favorably providence has been to me, I am finally completely independent (N. Mizin).

Analyzing the stylistic functions of obsolete words in literary speech, one cannot help but take into account the fact that their use in individual cases (as well as the use of other lexical means) may not be associated with a specific stylistic task, but is determined by the peculiarities of the author’s style and the individual preferences of the writer. Thus, for M. Gorky, many outdated words were stylistically neutral, and he used them without any special stylistic direction: People walked slowly past us, dragging long shadows behind them; [Pavel Odintsov] philosophized... that all work disappears, some do something, while others destroy what was created, without appreciating or understanding it.

In the poetic speech of Pushkin’s time, the appeal to incomplete words and other Old Slavonic expressions that have consonant Russian equivalents was often due to versification: in accordance with the requirement of rhythm and rhyme, the poet gave preference to one or another option (as “poetic liberties”): I will sigh, and my languid voice, like a harp’s voice, will die quietly in the air (Bat.); Onegin, my good friend, was born on the banks of the Neva... - Go to the Neva banks, newborn creation... (P.) By the end of the 19th century. poetic liberties were eliminated and the amount of outdated vocabulary in the poetic language sharply decreased. However, also Blok, and Yesenin, and Mayakovsky, and Bryusov, and other poets of the early 20th century. they paid tribute to outdated words traditionally assigned to poetic speech (though Mayakovsky had already turned to archaisms primarily as a means of irony and satire). Echoes of this tradition are still found today; cf.: Winter is a solid regional city, but not a village at all (Euth.).

In addition, it is important to emphasize that when analyzing the stylistic functions of obsolete words in a particular work of art, one should take into account the time of its writing and know the general linguistic norms that were in force in that era. After all, for a writer who lived a hundred or two hundred years ago, many words could have been completely modern, commonly used units that had not yet become a passive part of the vocabulary.

The need to turn to an outdated dictionary also arises for authors of scientific and historical works. To describe the past of Russia, its realities that have gone into oblivion, historicisms are used, which in such cases act in their own nominative function. Yes, academician D. S. Likhachev in his works “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, “The Culture of Rus' in the Time of Andrei Rublev and Epiphanius the Wise” uses many words unknown to a modern speaker of the language, mainly historicisms, explaining their meaning.

Sometimes the opinion is expressed that outdated words are also used in official business speech. Indeed, in legal documents there are sometimes words that in other conditions we have the right to attribute to archaisms: deed, punishment, retribution, deed. In business papers they write: herewith attached, this year, the undersigned, the above-named. Such words should be considered special. They are set in an official business style and do not carry any expressive or stylistic meaning in the context. However, the use of outdated words that do not have a strict terminological meaning can cause unjustified archaization of business language.

Depending on which aspect of the word is outdated, different types of archaisms are distinguished: -- lexical-- the word itself has become obsolete, its sound-letter complex is no longer used, and the meaning is expressed by another lexical unit:

eye - eye, mouth - lips, cheeks - cheeks, right hand - right hand, shuitsa - left hand

phonetic- the sound appearance of the word has changed, which is reflected in its spelling. These include the words klob (modern club), numer (modern number), stora (modern curtain), goshpital (modern hospital) and the like, found among writers of the 19th century. They differ from their “rivals” often by only one sound, less often by several sounds or an outdated accent. (mladoy - young, zlato - gold, breg - shore, hail - city, vran - raven; the first words in these pairs sound archaic).

“He sang the faded color of life / At almost eighteen years old” (Pushk.).

Also, phonetic archaisms include words that retain the sound [e] before a hard consonant, while in their modern versions they sound [o] (written ё) - red-hot (red-hot), enlightened (enlightened), doomed (doomed).

Another group of archaisms combines words with outdated suffixes; the word-formation structure of the word is outdated in them: Poison drips through its bark, / By noon, melting from the heat, / And hardens in the evening / With thick, cool resin (Pushk.); The madman cries only because of misfortune, / And the wise man seeks a means, / How to help his grief with deeds (Wing.). And our forester was Fedos Ivanov, a great scholar and knew how to sort things out well (Lesk.). What did Famusov say at Griboyedov’s? - Transferred to Moscow through my assistance (not assistance). Such archaisms are called word-forming. And we come across quite a few of them in the works of our favorite poets - fisherman, flirt, in vain, muzeum (modern museum). ...

semantic - the word exists in the modern Russian language, but has lost one or more meanings: And so that in the future he will not dare to perform miracles, / Having caught one, he will truly hang / And very much deprive his belly (Pushk.). Have you read the article in the Petersburg Gazette? (S.-Shch.) Arkady noticed all this, but kept his comments to himself (Turg.).

grammatical - certain grammatical forms of the word are outdated: The farmer breathes with joy / With full granaries he rejoices (Zhuk.)

As can be seen from the examples, obsolete words differ from each other in the degree of archaism: some are still found in speech, especially among poets, others are known only from the works of writers of the last century, and there are others that are completely forgotten.

The archaization of one of the meanings of a word is a very interesting phenomenon. The result of this process is the emergence of semantic, or semantic, archaisms, that is, words used in an unusual, outdated meaning for us. Knowledge of semantic archaisms helps to correctly understand the language of classical writers. And sometimes their use of words cannot but make us think seriously...

One should not neglect archaisms: they say, they disappear from the language, well, let’s forget them! There is no need to judge outdated words. There are cases when they return to the language and become part of the active vocabulary again. This was the case, for example, with the words soldier, officer, warrant officer, minister, adviser, which received a new life in modern Russian. In the first years of the revolution, they managed to become archaic, but then returned, acquiring a new meaning.

Archaisms, like historicisms, are necessary for verbal artists to create the flavor of antiquity when depicting antiquity.

Decembrist poets, contemporaries and friends of A.S. Pushkin, used Old Slavonic vocabulary to create civil-patriotic pathos in speech. A great interest in outdated words was a distinctive feature of their poetry. The Decembrists were able to identify a layer in the archaizing vocabulary that could be adapted to express freedom-loving ideas.

Having appreciated the expressive capabilities of high archaic vocabulary, A.S. Pushkin, even in the late period of his creativity, turned to it as an irreplaceable source of the sublime sound of speech. Who will be left indifferent, for example, by the lines from Pushkin’s “Prophet” imbued with Slavicisms?

Arise, prophet, and see and hear,

Be fulfilled by my will

And, bypassing the seas and lands,

Burn the hearts of people with the verb.

Not only A.S. Pushkin and his contemporaries, but also poets of later times found in archaisms a means of sublime sounding of speech. Throughout the 19th and even at the beginning of the 20th century, obsolete words were perceived as poetic and did not seem as archaic as they do now.

We try to learn good literary language from writers. Analyzing their use of archaisms and historicisms, we have the right to ask ourselves the question: “Can we ourselves decorate our speech with these expressive words?” The question is not an idle one...

Word obsolescence is a process, and different words may be at different stages of it. Those of them that have not yet gone out of active use, but are already used less frequently than before, are called obsolete.

Obsolete words are used in different functions. For example, when used to name objects and phenomena, they perform a nominative function (in scientific and historical works, etc.). In works of art on historical themes, this vocabulary already performs a nominative-stylistic function - it not only denotes realities, but also creates a certain flavor of the era. Obsolete words can be used in literary text to indicate the time in which the action takes place. Obsolete words (mainly archaisms) can also perform stylistic functions themselves, being expressive means, giving the text a special solemnity.

I want to hope that we will master the art of using historicisms and archaisms and not allow lapses that make an intelligent interlocutor or listener smile.

Bibliography

To prepare this work, materials from the site http://www. bolshe.ru/

Vocabulary that is no longer actively used in speech is not immediately forgotten. For some time, outdated words are still understandable to speakers, familiar to them from fiction, although when people communicate, there is no longer a need for them. Such words become part of the passive vocabulary; they are listed in explanatory dictionaries with the mark (obsolete). They can be used by writers depicting past eras, or by historians when describing historical facts, but over time, archaisms completely disappear from the language. This was the case, for example, with the Old Russian words komon - “horse”, usnie - “skin” (hence the hangnail), cherevye - “a type of shoe”. Individual obsolete words sometimes return to the vocabulary of the active vocabulary. For example, the words soldier, officer, ensign, gymnasium, lyceum, bill, exchange, department, which were not used for some time, are now again actively used in speech.

The special emotional and expressive coloring of obsolete words leaves an imprint on their semantics. “To say that, for example, the verbs rake and march (...) have such and such meanings without defining their stylistic role,” wrote D.N. Shmelev, “this means, in essence, to abandon precisely their semantic definition, replacing it with an approximate formula of subject-conceptual comparisons.” This places obsolete words in a special stylistic framework and requires a lot of attention to them.

1.9.2. Composition of obsolete words

The archaic vocabulary includes historicisms and archaisms. Historicisms include words that are the names of disappeared objects, phenomena, concepts (chain mail, hussars, food tax, NEP, October child (a child of primary school age preparing to join the pioneers), NKVD officer (employee of the NKVD - People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs), commissar, etc. .P.). Historicisms can be associated both with very distant eras and with events of relatively recent times, which, however, have already become facts of history (Soviet power, party activists, general secretary, Politburo). Historicisms do not have synonyms among the words of the active vocabulary, being the only names of the corresponding concepts.

Archaisms are names of existing things and phenomena, for some reason supplanted by other words belonging to the active vocabulary (cf.: every day - always, comedian - actor, zlato - gold, know - know).

Obsolete words are heterogeneous in origin: among them there are original Russian (full, shelom), Old Slavonic (glad, kiss, shrine), borrowed from other languages (abshid - “retirement”, voyage - “travel”).

Of particular interest stylistically are words of Old Church Slavonic origin, or Slavicisms. A significant part of Slavicisms were assimilated on Russian soil and stylistically merged with neutral Russian vocabulary (sweet, captivity, hello), but there are also Old Church Slavonic words that in modern language are perceived as an echo of high style and retain their characteristic solemn, rhetorical coloring.

The history of poetic vocabulary associated with ancient symbolism and imagery (the so-called poetisms) is similar to the fate of Slavicisms in Russian literature. Names of gods and heroes of Greek and Roman mythology, special poetic symbols (lyre, ellisium, Parnassus, laurels, myrtles), artistic images of ancient literature in the first third of the 19th century. formed an integral part of the poetic vocabulary. Poetic vocabulary, like Slavicisms, strengthened the opposition between sublime, romantically colored speech and everyday, prosaic speech. However, these traditional means of poetic vocabulary were not used for long in fiction. Already among the successors of A.S. Pushkin's poetisms are archaized.

1.9.3. Stylistic functions of obsolete words in artistic speech

Writers often turn to outdated words as an expressive means of artistic speech. The history of the use of Old Church Slavonic vocabulary in Russian fiction, especially in poetry, is interesting. Stylistic Slavicisms made up a significant part of the poetic vocabulary in the works of writers of the first third of the 19th century. Poets found in this vocabulary the source of the sublimely romantic and “sweet” sound of speech. Slavicisms, which have consonant variants in the Russian language, primarily non-vocal ones, were shorter than Russian words by one syllable and were used in the 18th-19th centuries. on the basis of “poetic license”: poets could choose from two words the one that corresponded to the rhythmic structure of speech (I will sigh, and my languid voice, like a harp’s voice, will die quietly in the air. - Bat.). Over time, the tradition of “poetic license” is overcome, but outdated vocabulary attracts poets and writers as a powerful means of expression.

« Land of Ottic and Dedich- these are the banks of deep rivers and forest clearings where our ancestor came to live forever. (...) he fenced off his dwelling with a fence and looked along the path of the sun into the distance of centuries.

And he imagined many things - difficult and difficult times: the red shields of Igor in the Polovtsian steppes, and the groans of the Russians on Kalka, and the peasant spears mounted under the banners of Dmitry on the Kulikovo field, and the blood-drenched ice of Lake Peipus, and the Terrible Tsar, who parted united, henceforth indestructible, the limits of the earth from Siberia to the Varangian Sea...".

Archaisms, especially Slavicisms, give speech a sublime, solemn sound. Old Church Slavonic vocabulary performed this function even in ancient Russian literature. In poetic speech of the 19th century. Old Russianisms, which also began to be used to create the pathos of artistic speech, became stylistically equal to the high Old Slavonic vocabulary. The high, solemn sound of outdated words is also appreciated by writers of the 20th century. During the Great Patriotic War, I.G. Ehrenburg wrote: “By repelling the blows of predatory Germany, it (the Red Army) saved not only the freedom of our Motherland, it saved the freedom of the world. This is the guarantee of the triumph of the ideas of brotherhood and humanity, and I see in the distance a world enlightened by grief, in which goodness will shine. Our people showed their military virtues…»

The new head of the working group preparing the celebration, Anatoly Chubais, set to work with enthusiasm. He believes that the script of the ceremony should be developed “for centuries”, and therefore there is no place in it for “temporary”, mortal delights. The latter included an ode already written for the holiday, which could conditionally be called “On the day of President Yeltsin’s accession to the Kremlin.” The work suffered a bitter fate: Chubais did not approve it, and on August 9 we will not sing:

Our proud state is great and majestic.

The whole country is full of strength, she made the choice!

("Inauguration is not a game")

There is an opinion that outdated vocabulary is common in official business style. Indeed, in business papers certain words and figures of speech are used, which in other conditions we have the right to consider as archaisms [for example, the legal terms act, capable, deed, punishment, retribution in dictionaries are accompanied by the mark (arch.)]. In some documents they write: this year, attached to this, the undersigned, the above, etc. These special official business words do not have an expressive connotation within “their” functional style. Such outdated vocabulary in an official business style does not carry any stylistic load.

Analysis of the stylistic functions of archaisms in a particular work requires knowledge of general linguistic norms in force in the era being described. For example, in the works of writers of the 19th century. There are words that were archaized at a later time. So, in the tragedy of A.S. Pushkin’s “Boris Godunov”, along with archaisms and historicisms, there are words that became part of the passive vocabulary only in Soviet times (tsar, reign, etc.); Naturally, they should not be classified as outdated vocabulary that carries a certain stylistic load in the work.

1.9.4. Errors caused by the use of outdated words

The use of outdated words without taking into account their expressive coloring becomes the cause of gross stylistic errors. For example: Sponsors were greeted with joy at the boarding school; The laboratory assistant came to the boss and told him about what had happened. The young entrepreneur quickly saw the efficiency of his manager - in these proposals the Slavicisms are archaic. The word welcome is not even included in S.I.’s “Dictionary of the Russian Language.” Ozhegov, in “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language,” ed. D.N. Ushakov it is given with the mark (obsolete, poetic); the word to tell Ozhegov marked (obsolete), and Ushakov - (obsolete, rhetorician); see has a mark (old). A context in which there is no attitude towards a humorous coloring of speech does not allow the use of outdated words; they should be replaced with synonyms (greeted, told, saw [noticed]).

Sometimes authors, using an outdated word, distort its meaning. For example: As a result of a stormy meeting of household members, the renovation of the house was started - the word household, which has the mark (obsolete) in Ozhegov’s dictionary, is explained as “people who live in a family as its members,” and in the text it is used in the meaning of “tenants” . Another example from a newspaper article: At the meeting, even the most unpleasant shortcomings in work were revealed. The word impartial means “impartial”, moreover, it has limited lexical compatibility possibilities (only criticism can be impartial). The incorrect use of archaisms is very often complicated by a violation of lexical compatibility: Andreev was certified as a person who had worked on this path for a very long time (the path is chosen, the path is followed, but they do not work on it).

Sometimes the meaning of an outdated grammatical form of a word is distorted. For example: He refuses to testify, but this is not the point. The essence is the third person plural form of the verb to be, and the subject is singular, the connective must be consistent with it.

Outdated words can give the text a clerical feel. (Similar buildings that are not needed at one construction site are needed at another; Classes must be conducted in the appropriate premises). In business papers, where many archaisms have become established as terms, the use of such special vocabulary should be appropriate. It is impossible, for example, to consider it stylistically justified to resort to outdated figures of speech at your discretion, I add herewith, the above-mentioned violator, upon receipt of them, etc.

Stylists note that recently obsolete words that are outside the boundaries of the literary language have become widespread; and often they are given a new meaning. For example, the word is incorrectly used in vain, which has the mark (obsolete) in Ozhegov’s dictionary and is explained by synonyms fruitlessly, in vain [Intentions to find a reasonable compromise remained in vain; The issues of creating crop rotations and using a complex of fertilizers remain unanswered (better: It was not possible to find a reasonable compromise; ... Crop rotation has not been introduced and a complex of fertilizers is not used)]:

With frequent repetition, outdated words sometimes lose the archaic connotation that previously distinguished them. This can be observed in the example of the word now. In Ozhegov, this adverb is given with the stylistic marks (obsolete) and (high) [cf.: ... now there, along the renovated banks, slender communities are crowded with palaces and towers... (P.)]. Modern authors often use this word as stylistically neutral. For example: Many MIMO graduates have now become diplomats; Nowadays there are not many students at the faculty who would be content with a scholarship - in the first sentence the word now should have been omitted, and in the second it should have been replaced with the synonym now. Thus, neglecting the stylistic coloring of outdated words inevitably leads to speech errors.

Obsolete words perform various stylistic functions in artistic speech. Archaisms and historicisms are used to recreate the flavor of distant times. They were used in this function, for example, by A.N. Tolstoy: “The land of Ottich and Dedich are those banks of deep rivers and forest glades where our ancestor came to live forever. (...) he fenced off his home with a fence and looked along the path of the sun into the distance of centuries. And he imagined many things - difficult and difficult times: the red shields of Igor in the Polovtsian steppes, and the groans of the Russians on Kalka, and the peasant spears mounted under the banners of Dmitry on The Kulikovo field, and the blood-drenched ice of Lake Peipsi, and the Terrible Tsar, who expanded the united, henceforth indestructible, boundaries of the earth from Siberia to the Varangian Sea...”

Outdated vocabulary can take on an ironic connotation. For example: Which parent does not dream of an understanding, balanced child who grasps everything literally on the fly. But attempts to turn your child into a “miracle” tragically often end in failure (from the gas). The ironic rethinking of outdated words is often facilitated by the parodic use of elements of high style. In a parody-ironic function, outdated words often appear in feuilletons, pamphlets, and humorous notes. Let us cite an example from a newspaper publication during the preparation for the day the president took office (August 1996): The new head of the working group for preparing the celebration, Anatoly Chubais, got down to business with enthusiasm. He believes that the script of the ceremony should be developed “for centuries”, and therefore there is no place in it for “temporary”, mortal delights. The latter included an ode already written for the holiday, which could conditionally be called “On the day of President Yeltsin’s accession to the Kremlin.” The work suffered a bitter fate: Chubais did not approve it, and on August 9 we will not sing:

Our proud state is great and majestic.

The whole country is full of strength, she made the choice!

(“Inauguration is not a game”) There is an opinion that outdated vocabulary is common in formal business style. Indeed, in business papers certain words and figures of speech are used, which in other conditions we have the right to consider as archaisms [for example, the legal terms act, capable, deed, punishment, retribution in dictionaries are accompanied by the mark (arch.)]. In some documents they write: this year, attached to this, the undersigned, the above, etc. These special official business words do not have an expressive connotation within “their” functional style. Such outdated vocabulary in an official business style does not carry any stylistic load.

No. 20Slavicisms - words borrowed from Old Church Slavonic or (later) from Church Slavonic languages. In general, these are words that have a Russian synonym in the literary language.

Lomonosov singled out Slavicisms as “unintelligible” ( clear, I love it) and generally accepted ( horse, eyes). The stylistic effect of Slavicisms also depends on the degree of assimilation.

Already Lomonosov's theory of styles was based on the relationship between two funds of the Russian literary language - the fund of so-called “Slovenian” words (Old Slavonic or Church Slavonic) and the fund of purely Russian words.

Slavicisms and archaisms should not be confused. Old Church Slavonic is not an ancient form of the Russian language. They coexisted together, and the Old Church Slavonic language was a source of constant borrowing. Words clothes, sky, head(in the book) do not give the impression of being outdated. Archaisms are words that are dying out, going out of use, but this cannot be said about Slavicisms in general. Slavicisms cannot be classified as barbarisms either, since the Old Church Slavonic language in the part in which it was adopted by the Russian language was not a foreign language.

Phonetic features of Slavicisms

1. Disagreement

Oro/ra (enemy/enemy), ere/re (shore/shore), olo/le, la (full/captivity, volost/power).

It must be remembered that you can talk about full agreement/non-fulfillment only when there are pairs of words.

Words can change their meaning: gunpowder/ash. Only one word from a pair can be preserved (full or partial): peas/grah, time/ time. For literature, the most interesting case is when both words of a pair are preserved. Then Slavicisms are perceived as lofty words. Poet is a high or low word depending on the style. It also happens the other way around: Slavicism remains in the language, but the disappeared Russian word is perceived as high (helm/shelom).

2.Consonant alternations

Slav. Russian

Zhd (alien, clothes) w (alien, clothes)

Ш (night, oven) h (night, oven)

3.Use of participles in –ush, -yush, -ashch, -yash.

4. There is no transition e o with softening of the subsequent consonant under stress. For example, sky/palate.

Morphological characteristics of Slavicisms

1.Form of the nominative case of masculine adjectives: oh (Russian phrase good)/й (vs. good).

2. Truncation of adjectives (sleepless, supportive).

3. Form of the genitive case of feminine nouns: ыя (slav.f. wise)/oi (wise).

Declension of nouns according to the paradigms of the Old Church Slavonic language. For example, ochesa (plural from “eyes”), miracles (plural from “miracle”), sons (instead of “sons”).

Lexical features of Slavicisms

1. Slavicisms include a large number of function words.

How long / how long - until when, until - not yet, if - how long, for sure - after all.

Stylistic functions of Slavicisms

1.Slavicisms are used to stylize the speech of past times.

2.Use of Slavicisms when translating ancient texts.

3. The comic function of Slavicisms (a low subject is spoken of in a high style).

4.Slavicisms are the professional language of the clergy. A means of characterizing a hero if a priest or a pious person is portrayed. The function of depicting professional language can be combined with an ironic function.

I.I. Sreznevsky wrote: “Each word is a representative of a concept that existed among the people: what was expressed in words was in life; what did not happen in life, there was no word for it. For a historian, every word is a witness, a monument, a fact of the life of the people, the more important the more important the concept it expresses. Complementing one another, they together represent a system of concepts of the people, the more important the more important the concept they express. Complementing one another, they together represent a system of concepts of the people, convey the story of the life of the people” [Sreznevsky 1887: 35].

The stylistic and stylistic functions of archaisms and historicisms in modern language are defined as:

A) a reflection of the linguistic style of the era;

B) creating solemnity and poetry of speech;

C) stylization - recreating the language of the era;

D) lowering of stylistic assessment (ironic, joking, mocking, contemptuous, disapproving, etc.).

Of the listed functions, the most important is the first (recreating the color of a historical era), since a historical description is impossible without the use of outdated vocabulary. Unlike some other groups of vocabulary of limited use (for example, special vocabulary), the meanings of obsolete words are rarely subject to figurative rethinking in the text of historical prose. Historicisms and archaisms are usually used in their direct meaning. Therefore, such a stylistic device as the introduction of outdated vocabulary into an artistic context is of particular importance. A writer who uses this technique is faced with the fact that many historicisms or archaisms are incomprehensible to readers. This requires additional explanation in the text. If the author uses obscure words without explanation, then they sound “in vain” [Larin 1974: 237] and do not perform an aesthetic and informational function.

Historicisms and archaisms fall into two groups from the point of view of understanding their meanings by speakers of the modern Russian language: outdated words, used quite often, preserved in famous works of Russian classics, used in modern literature and therefore understandable to a wide range of readers (och, warrior, prince, thief , vervie, dlan, etc.), and obscure historicisms and archaisms that require mandatory explanation when used for stylization purposes.

Interpretation in footnotes and dictionaries is quite common, although this method of introducing obscure words into context is far from the most successful, since this violates the perception of the integrity of the literary text. As B.A. Larin wrote about dialectisms (to which he classified various groups of words of limited use): “... this is an unprofitable, awkward way of enriching the literary language, it is borrowed from scientific practice, but is rarely appropriate in fiction” [Larin 1974 : 234].

Another way of introducing outdated vocabulary into context seems more successful: correlating the meanings with the meanings of commonly used words in the modern lexicon directly in the text of the narrative, using semantic parallels, synonyms - the entire “environment” that helps clarify the meaning of the outdated word:

And whoever doesn’t buy is a perpetrator, an accomplice to the enemies.

An acquaintance took pity on the boy.

Lyubava in leather protrusions on bare feet...

In the texts of fiction there are words/meanings of words that are archaic from a modern point of view. But here it is necessary to distinguish:

archaization of our linguistic time - the end of the 20th and beginning of the 21st century;

archaization of the linguistic time of text creation.

Therefore, there are two aspects to the analysis of lexical archaization: archaization of the time the work was written and archaization of the modern reading of the work.

When stylizing, the language of a bygone era is not reproduced absolutely accurately. Sometimes, in order to achieve the desired effect, the author only needs a few words that fit into the outline of the narrative, reflecting the old word order. It is interesting that very often such words are pronouns and function words: this, that, so that, because, etc.

Speaking about the role of outdated words in works telling about events of the past, it should be emphasized that, in contrast to archaisms, which carry a purely stylistic load, historicisms, in addition, perform a nominative function, being the only possible designations for those things about which the author writes.

G.O. Vinokur wrote about the use of outdated vocabulary in historical novels [Vinokur 1991]. Aesthetically justified, in view of the impossibility of complete stylization of the language of the depicted time, G.O. Vinokur recognized the principle of greater or lesser approximation to the language of the era, which should be based on the understanding that “there is no strict parallelism between the history of language and the history of life” [Vinokur 1991 : 411]. In this regard, he put forward a very important thesis about the creative expediency of relying in linguistic stylization not on the “fluid”, changeable, but on the “eternal” and general - i.e. on what can make the language of a historical work understandable and aesthetically satisfactory for the reader, while simultaneously responding to his desire to feel the flavor of the era. You should pay attention to the following statement to the following statement by Vinokur: “... I have the right to say that, without any doubt, it is possible to write a novel on any historical topic without a single linguistic archaism, exclusively by means of a neutral language stock...” [Vinokur 1991: 414-415 ].

It is also important here that the concept of neutrality is conceptualized as absolute. The author did not see any obstacles to expanding the boundaries of this concept, believing that everything is dictated by the needs of aesthetic conformity. And in this sense, G.O. Vinokur’s distinction between language anachronisms and material anachronisms is fundamental. If writers are looking for a style that is not content with a neutral layer of language, but requires material evidence taken from the language of the era depicted, then the language itself is included in the circle of those objects that are depicted in these works. And then the actual poetic task arises: the correspondence of the language to what is depicted ceases to be an external, technical problem. It, according to the author’s view, “becomes a pressing artistic problem of representation” [Vinokur 1991: 415], when the aesthetic criterion turns out to be equal to the criterion of credibility and persuasiveness.

G.O. Vinokur notes: “For a whole century now, two main styles have been competing in realistic fiction: 1. Imitating and 2. Non-imitating. This is the new contradiction that realism brought with it” [Vinokur 1991: 417]. A differentiating feature of the “non-imitating” style is a sharp distinction between the speech of the author and the character, which can be replaced by the fact that the character speaks like the author, and not vice versa. The differential feature of the “imitating” style is the inevitable merging of the author and the character in character speech, “certainly associated with the “molded”, “ornamental” feeling of the language, and not with its strict geometric pattern.”

A historical novel must certainly be written in the language of the author and his environment, and at the same time it must be the language not of the author and his environment, but of the era that he depicts. Consequently, we can only talk about a greater or lesser approximation to the language of the depicted environment and era, i.e. about a certain selection of imitated or quoted facts of language. This can only be achieved through a certain selection of the means available to the author who studies the era that serves as his theme.