Spontaneous and sudden recollection is called. Alternation of different forms of memory. discovered that semantic memorization is more effective than mechanical memorization
Memory connects a subject’s past with his present and future and is the most important cognitive function underlying development and learning.
Memory is the basis of mental activity. Without it, it is impossible to understand the basics of the formation of behavior, thinking, consciousness, and subconsciousness. Therefore, to better understand a person, it is necessary to know as much as possible about our memory.
Images of objects or processes of real reality that we previously perceived and now mentally reproduce are called representations.
Memory representations are a reproduction, more or less accurate, of objects or phenomena that once acted on our senses. Representations of the imagination are ideas about objects that we have never perceived in such combinations or in such a form. Representations of the imagination are also based on past perceptions, but these latter serve only as material from which we create new ideas with the help of imagination.
Memory is based on associations or connections. Objects or phenomena that are connected in reality are also connected in human memory. We can, having encountered one of these objects, by association remember another associated with it; to remember something means to connect what you want to remember with something already known, to form an association.
From a physiological point of view, an association is a temporary neural connection. There are two types of associations: by contiguity, by similarity and by contrast. Association by contiguity combines two phenomena related in time or space. Such an association by contiguity is formed, for example, when memorizing the alphabet: when naming a letter, the one that follows it is remembered. Association by similarity connects two phenomena that have similar features: when one is mentioned, the other is remembered.
Association by contrast connects two opposite phenomena.
In addition to these types, there are complex associations - associations in meaning; they connect two phenomena that in reality are constantly connected: part and whole, genus and species, cause and effect. These connections, associations in meaning, are the basis of our knowledge.
To form a temporary connection, the repeated coincidence of two stimuli in time is required; to form an association, repetition is required. But repetitions alone are not enough. Sometimes many repetitions do not produce results, and sometimes, on the contrary, a connection occurs in one go, if a strong focus of excitation has arisen in the cerebral cortex, facilitating the formation of a temporary connection.
A more important condition for the formation of an association is business reinforcement, i.e., the inclusion of what needs to be remembered in the actions of students, their application of knowledge in the process of assimilation.
The basic processes of memory are memorization, storage, recognition and reproduction.
Memorization is a process aimed at preserving received impressions in memory, a prerequisite for preservation.
Preservation is a process of active processing, systematization, generalization of material, and mastery of it.
Reproduction and recognition are processes of restoration of what was previously perceived. The difference between them is that recognition takes place when the object is encountered again, when it is perceived again. Reproduction occurs in the absence of an object.
Types of memory:
1. Involuntary memory (information is remembered by itself without special memorization, but in the course of performing an activity, in the course of working on information). Strongly developed in childhood, weakens in adults.
2. Voluntary memory (information is remembered purposefully using special techniques). The efficiency of random memory depends on:
1. From the purposes of memorization (how firmly, for how long a person wants to remember). If the goal is to learn in order to pass an exam, then soon after the exam a lot will be forgotten; if the goal is to learn for a long time, for future professional activity, then little information is forgotten.
2. From memorization techniques. Methods of learning are:
a) mechanical verbatim repetition - mechanical memory works, a lot of effort and time are spent, and the results are low. Rote memory is memory based on repeating material without comprehending it;
b) logical retelling, which includes logical comprehension of the material, systematization, highlighting the main logical components of information, retelling in your own words -
mi - logical memory (semantic) works - a type of memory based on the establishment of semantic connections in the memorized material. The efficiency of logical memory is 20 times higher, better than mechanical memory;
c) figurative memorization techniques (translation of information into images, graphs, diagrams, pictures) - figurative memory works. Figurative memory is of different types: visual, auditory, motor-motor, gustatory, tactile, olfactory, emotional;
d) mnemonic memorization techniques (special techniques to facilitate memorization).
The ability to constantly accumulate information, which is the most important feature of the psyche, is universal in nature, covers all areas and periods of mental activity and in many cases is realized automatically, almost unconsciously. As an example, we can cite a case: a completely illiterate woman fell ill and, in a feverish delirium, loudly shouted Latin and Greek sayings, the meaning of which she clearly did not understand. It turned out that as a child she served under a pastor who used to memorize quotes from ancient classics out loud. The woman involuntarily remembered them forever, which, however, she herself did not suspect before her illness.
All living beings have memory. Evidence has emerged of the ability to remember even in plants. In the broadest sense, memory can be defined as a mechanism for recording information acquired and used by a living organism. Human memory is, first of all, the accumulation, consolidation, preservation and subsequent reproduction by a person of his experience, i.e., everything that happened to him. Memory is a way of existence of the psyche in time, retention of the past, i.e., that which no longer exists in the present. Therefore memory - necessary condition the unity of the human psyche, our psychological identity.
Structure of Memory Most psychologists recognize the existence of several
levels of memory that differ in how long each can retain information. The first level corresponds to the immediate or sensory type of memory. Its systems hold fairly accurate and complete data about how the world is perceived by our senses at the receptor level. Duration of data storage is 0.1-0.5 seconds.
Discovering how our sensory memory works is not difficult. Close your eyes, then open them for a moment and close them again. Observe how the clear, clear picture you see remains for some time, and then slowly disappears. This is the content of sensory memory. If the information received in this way attracts the attention of the higher parts of the brain, it will be stored for about 20 seconds (without repeating or replaying the signal while the brain processes and interprets it). This is the second level - short-term memory.
Information like the last few words of a sentence (that you just heard or read), telephone numbers, someone's last name, can be retained by short-term memory in a very limited amount: five to nine numbers, letters, or the name of five to nine objects. And only by making a conscious effort, repeating the material contained in short-term memory again and again, can it be retained for an indefinitely long time.
Consequently, short-term memory is still amenable to conscious regulation and can be controlled by a person. But the “immediate imprints” of sensory information cannot be repeated; they are stored only for tenths of a second and the psyche has no ability to extend them.
Any information first enters short-term memory, which ensures that information presented once is remembered for a short time, after which the information can be completely forgotten or transferred to long-term memory, but subject to repetition 1-2 times. Short-term memory (SM) is limited in volume; with a single presentation, an average of 7 ± 2 fits into the SM. This is the magic formula for human memory, i.e., on average, a person can remember from 5 to 9 words, figures, numbers, figures in one sitting , pictures, pieces of information. The main thing is to ensure that these “pieces” are more information-rich through grouping, combining numbers and words into a single integral “piece-image”. The volume of short-term memory is individual for each person; based on the volume of short-term memory, one can predict the success of training using the formula: OKP/2 + 1 = academic score.
Long-term memory ensures long-term retention of information. It comes in two types: 1) DP with conscious access (i.e. a person can voluntarily extract and remember the necessary information); 2) DP is closed (a person under natural conditions does not have access to it; only through hypnosis, when irritating parts of the brain, can he gain access to it and update in all details images, experiences, pictures of his whole life).
Working memory is a type of memory that manifests itself during the performance of a certain activity, serving this activity by storing information coming from both the CP and the DP necessary to perform the current activity.
Intermediate memory ensures the retention of information for several hours, accumulates information during the day, and the time of night sleep is allocated by the body to clear intermediate memory and categorize information accumulated over the past day, transferring it to long-term memory. At the end of sleep, intermediate memory is again ready to receive new information. In a person who sleeps less than three hours a day, intermediate memory does not have time to be cleared, as a result, the performance of mental and computational operations is disrupted, attention and short-term memory decrease, and errors appear in speech and actions.
Long-term memory with conscious access is characterized by a pattern of forgetting: everything unnecessary, secondary, as well as a certain percentage of necessary information is forgotten.
Forgetting can be complete or partial, long-term or temporary. In case of complete forgetting, the material is not only not reproduced, but also not recognized. Partial forgetting of material occurs when a person does not reproduce it all or with errors, as well as when he learns it, but cannot reproduce it. Physiologists explain temporary forgetting by inhibition of temporary nerve connections, complete forgetting by their extinction. Studies of the forgetting process have revealed an interesting feature: the most accurate and complete reproduction of complex and extensive material usually occurs not immediately after memorization, but 2-3 days later. This enhanced delayed recall is called reminiscence.
Forgetting factors
Most memory problems are not related to difficulties in remembering, but rather in recall. Some data from modern science suggest that information is stored in memory indefinitely, but most of it a person (under normal conditions) cannot use. It is practically inaccessible to him, he “forgot” it, although he rightly claims that he once “knew” about it, read, heard, but... This is forgetting, temporary situational, sudden, complete or partial, selective and etc., i.e., a process leading to a loss of clarity and a decrease in the volume of data that can be updated in the psyche. The depth of forgetting can be astonishing; sometimes those who “forget” deny the very fact of their acquaintance with what they need to remember, and do not recognize what they have repeatedly encountered.
Forgetting can be caused by various factors. The first and most obvious of them is time. It takes less than an hour to forget half of the material you learned mechanically.
To reduce forgetting, it is necessary: 1) understanding, comprehension of information (mechanically learned, but not fully understood information is forgotten quickly and almost completely - curve 1 on the graph); 2) repetition of information (the first repetition is necessary 40 minutes after memorization, since after an hour only 50% of the mechanically memorized information remains in the memory). It is necessary to repeat it more often in the first days after memorization, since on these days the losses from forgetting are maximum. It’s better this way: on the first day - 2-3 repetitions, on the second day - 1-2 repetitions, on the third to seventh days - one repetition each, then one repetition with an interval of 7-10 days. Remember that 30 repetitions over the course of a month is more effective than 100 repetitions per day. Therefore, systematic, without overload, studying, memorizing in small portions throughout the semester with periodic repetitions after 10 days is much more effective than concentrated memorization of a large amount of information in a short session, causing mental and mental overload and almost complete forgetting of information a week after the session.
Forgetting depends to a large extent on the nature of the activity immediately preceding and occurring after memorization.
The negative influence of activity preceding memorization is called proactive inhibition. The negative influence of the activity following memorization is called retroactive inhibition; it is especially pronounced in cases where, after memorization, an activity similar to it is performed or if this activity requires significant effort.
When we noted that forgetting is determined by the time elapsed after memorization, we can assume an obvious relationship: the longer the time the information remains in the psyche, the deeper the forgetting. But the psyche is characterized by paradoxical phenomena: older people (age is a temporary characteristic) easily remember the past, but just as easily forget what they just heard. This phenomenon is called Ribot's law, the law of reversal of memory.
An important factor in forgetting is usually considered to be the degree of activity in using available information. What is forgotten is what there is no constant need or necessity. This is true most of all in relation to semantic memory for information received in adulthood.
Childhood impressions and motor skills (riding a bicycle, playing the guitar, swimming) remain fairly stable for decades, without any exercise. There is, however, a known case where a man, who had been in prison for about three years, forgot how to tie not only his tie, but also his shoelaces.
Forgetting may be due to the work of the protective mechanisms of our psyche, which displace traumatic impressions from consciousness into the subconscious, where they are then more or less reliably retained. Consequently, what is “forgotten” is something that disturbs the psychological balance and causes constant negative tension (“motivated forgetting”).
Reproduction forms:
Recognition is a manifestation of memory that occurs when an object is re-perceived;
Memory, which is carried out in the absence of perception of the object;
Recall, which is the most active form of reproduction, largely depends on the clarity of the tasks assigned, on the degree of logical ordering of the information remembered and stored in the DP;
Reminiscence is a delayed reproduction of something previously perceived that seemed forgotten;
Eidetism is a visual memory that retains a vivid image with all the details of what is perceived for a long time.
Types of memory
In accordance with the type of memorized material, the following are distinguished:
four types of memory. Genetically primary is considered to be motor memory, i.e. the ability to remember and reproduce a system of motor operations (type on a typewriter, tie a tie, use tools, drive a car, etc.). Then figurative memory is formed, i.e. the ability to save and subsequently use the data of our perception. Depending on which analyzer took the greatest part in the formation of the image, we can talk about five subtypes of figurative memory: visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory and gustatory. The human psyche is focused primarily on visual and auditory memory, which is characterized by great differentiation (especially “memory” for faces, situations, intonations, etc.).
Almost simultaneously with motor memory, emotional memory is formed, which is a recording of the feelings we have experienced, our own emotional states and affects. A person who was greatly frightened by a dog jumping out of the entrance will flinch for a long time as he passes by (memory of fear, shame, blind rage, etc.). The highest type of memory, inherent only to humans, is considered verbal (sometimes called verbal-logical or semantic) memory. With its help, the information base of the human intellect is formed, most mental actions are carried out (reading, counting, etc.). Semantic memory as a product of culture includes forms of thinking, methods of cognition and analysis, and basic grammatical rules of the native language.
2.1. Memory disorders
Memory is one of the most vulnerable human abilities; its various disorders are very common. As La Rochefoucauld noted: “everyone complains about their memory, but no one complains about their mind.” Typical memory disorders clearly demonstrate its dependence on the entire complex of a person’s personal characteristics, and their analysis allows us to better understand memory as a psychological phenomenon.
Individual parameters of human memory have a very wide range, so the concept of “normal memory” is quite vague. For example, your memories suddenly become more vivid and sharper, more detailed than usual, the smallest details are reproduced in them, you did not even suspect that you “remember” all this. In this case, they talk about hyperfunction of memory, which is usually associated with strong excitement, feverish excitement, taking certain drugs or hypnotic influence.
Violation of emotional balance, feelings of uncertainty and anxiety set the thematic focus of the hyperfunction of memory, which in these cases takes the form of intrusive memories. We irresistibly remember (in the most vivid figurative form) our extremely unpleasant or shameful actions. It is almost impossible to expel such memories: they return again and again, causing us to feel shame and remorse (“memory of conscience”).
Much more common is a weakening of memory functions, a partial loss of the ability to store or reproduce existing information. The earliest manifestations of memory deterioration include weakening of selective reproduction, difficulties in reproducing material needed at the moment (dates, names, titles, terms, etc.). Memory loss can then take the form of progressive amnesia. Its causes: alcoholism, trauma, sclerosis, age-related and negative personality changes, some diseases.
With amnesia, the ability to remember new information is first lost, and then the information reserves of memory are successively reduced. First of all, what was learned quite recently is forgotten, that is, new data and new associations, then memories of recent years life. Events from childhood and youth recorded in memory last much longer.
People quickly lose memory associated with the rules of complex mental actions, complex assessments, the most stable way of holding oneself, gait, etc.
Impaired immediate memory, or " Korsakov's syndrome“, manifests itself in the fact that memory for current events is impaired, a person forgets what he just did, said, saw, so the accumulation of new experience and knowledge becomes impossible, although previous knowledge may be preserved.
Disturbances in the dynamics of mnestic activity may be observed (B.V. Zeigarnik): a person remembers well, but after a short time he cannot do it, for example, a person memorizes 10 words. And after the 3rd presentation, he remembered 6 words, and after the fifth, he could already say only 3 words, after the sixth, again 6 words, i.e., fluctuations in mnestic activity occur. This memory impairment is often observed in patients with vascular diseases of the brain, as well as after brain injury, after intoxication as a manifestation of general mental exhaustion. Quite often, forgetfulness, inaccurate assimilation of information, and forgetting of intentions occur as a consequence of a person’s emotional instability.
There are also violations of indirect memory, when indirect methods of memorization, for example, pictures, symbols associated with certain information, do not help, but complicate the work of memory, i.e., hints do not help in this case, but interfere.
If, with full functioning of memory, the “Zeigarnik effect” is observed, i.e. unfinished actions are remembered better, then with many memory disorders there is also a violation of the motivational components of memory, i.e. unfinished actions are forgotten.
Interesting facts about memory deceptions, which usually take the form of extremely one-sided selectivity of memories, false memories (confibulation) and memory distortions. They are usually caused by strong desires, unsatisfied needs and drives. The simplest case: a child is given candy, he quickly eats it, and then “forgets” about it and quite sincerely proves that he did not receive anything. It is practically impossible to convince him (like many adults) in such cases. Memory easily becomes a slave to human passions, prejudices and inclinations. That is why unbiased, objective memories of the past are very rare. Memory distortions are often associated with a weakening of the ability to distinguish between one’s own and someone else’s, between what a person actually experienced and what he heard or read about. With repeated repetition of such memories, their complete personification occurs, that is, a person quite naturally and organically considers as his own other people’s thoughts, ideas that he himself sometimes rejected, and recalls the details of events in which he never participated. This shows how closely memory is related to imagination, fantasy and what is sometimes called psychological reality.
It turned out that the same subcortical areas (primarily the limbic system) that are responsible for affective and motivational activation of the psyche play a major role in consolidating information.
It was found that damage to the occipital lobes of the brain causes visual impairment, the frontal lobes - emotions, destruction of the left hemisphere negatively affects speech, etc. But, to everyone's surprise, until very recently it was necessary to state the fact that not only animals, but and people can suffer extensive brain damage without obvious memory impairment. The only pattern discovered was of a very general nature: the more extensive the brain damage, the more serious its consequences for memory. This situation is called the law of mass action: memory is destroyed in proportion to the weight of the destroyed brain tissue. Even removing 20% of the brain (with surgical operations) does not lead to memory loss. Therefore, doubts arose about the existence of a localized memory center; a number of psychologists unequivocally argued that the entire brain should be considered a memory organ.
With a direct effect on certain areas of the brain, complex chains of memories can emerge in consciousness, i.e. a person suddenly remembers what he had long forgotten, and easily continues to remember what was “forgotten” after the operation. Secondly, if not a memory center, then at least a section was found that regulates the transfer of data from short-term memory to long-term memory, without which memorizing newly received new information is impossible. This center is called the hippocampus and is located in the temporal lobe of the brain. After bilateral hippocampal ablation, patients retained memory of what happened before surgery, but no new data was observed.
They also try to influence memory processes using pharmacological and physical factors. Many scientists believe that searches in the field of memory management should be aimed at creating biologically active compounds that selectively affect learning processes (for example, caffeine, biogenic amines), short-term or long-term memory (substances that inhibit DNA and RNA synthesis, affecting protein metabolism etc.), on the creation and formation of engrams - substances that influence the change in cell proteins (from protoplasm to soma).
Nowadays, the study of pharmacological agents that affect memory is proceeding rapidly. It has been established that long-known pituitary hormones can serve as memory stimulants. “Short” chains of amino acids - peptides, especially vasopressin and corticotropin, significantly improve short-term and long-term memory.
According to the hypothesis about the physical structure of memory, the basis of the memory phenomenon is the spatiotemporal pattern of bioelectrical activity of nerve populations - discrete and electrotonic. Therefore, to manage memory, it is more adequate to influence the brain and its subsystems by electrical and electromagnetic factors. Success can be achieved by influencing the brain with various physical factors - electrical and acoustic.
All this speaks to the real possibility of memory management.
Memory can be developed, trained, significantly improved, and its productivity increased. Memory productivity consists of the following parameters: volume, speed, accuracy, duration, readiness for memorization and reproduction. Memory productivity is influenced by subjective and objective reasons. Subjective reasons include: a person’s interest in information, the chosen type of memorization, the memorization techniques used, innate abilities, the state of the body, previous experience, the person’s attitude. Objective factors influencing memory productivity include: the nature of the material, the amount of material, the clarity of the material, its rhythm, meaningfulness and intelligibility, its coherence and the characteristics of the environment in which memorization occurs.
To summarize, we emphasize that memory ensures the integrity and development of a person’s personality and occupies a central position in the system of cognitive activity.
Reminiscence is the spontaneous recollection of material that was once perceived, but then temporarily forgotten and not restored to memory.
Patterns of memory
Liked? Please thank us! It's free for you, and it's a big help to us! Add our website to your social network:Memorization. Memory, like any other cognitive mental process, has certain characteristics. The main characteristics of memory are: volume, speed of imprinting, accuracy of reproduction, duration of storage, readiness to use stored information.
Memory- this is the most important integral characteristic of memory, which characterizes the ability to memorize and retain information. When talking about memory capacity, the number of remembered units of information is used as an indicator.
A parameter like playback speed, characterizes a person’s ability to use the information he has in practical activities. As a rule, when faced with the need to solve any task or problem, a person turns to information that is stored in memory. At the same time, some people use their “information reserves” quite easily, while others, on the contrary, experience serious difficulties when trying to reproduce the information necessary to solve even a familiar problem.
Another characteristic of memory is fidelity. This characteristic reflects a person’s ability to accurately store, and most importantly, accurately reproduce information imprinted in memory. In the process of storing in memory, some information is lost, and some is distorted, and when reproducing this information, a person can make mistakes. Therefore, accuracy of reproduction is a very significant characteristic of memory. The most important characteristic of memory is duration; it reflects a person’s ability to retain the necessary information for a certain time. Very often in practice we are faced with the fact that a person has memorized the necessary information, but cannot retain it for the required time. For example, a person is preparing for an exam. He remembers one academic topic, and when he starts to learn the next one, he suddenly discovers that he does not remember what he taught before. Sometimes it's different. The person remembered all the necessary information, but when it was necessary to reproduce it, he could not do it. However, after some time, he is surprised to note that he remembers everything that he managed to learn. In this case, we are faced with another characteristic of memory - the readiness to reproduce information imprinted in memory.
As we have already noted, memory is a complex mental process that combines a number of mental processes. The listed characteristics of memory are, to one degree or another, inherent in all processes that are united by the concept of “memory”. We will begin our acquaintance with the basic mechanisms and processes of memory with memorization.
Memorization- This is the process of imprinting and subsequent storage of perceived information. Based on the degree of activity of this process, it is customary to distinguish two types of memorization:
- unintentional(or involuntary)
- deliberate(or arbitrary).
Unintentional remembering- this is memorization without a predetermined goal, without the use of any techniques and the manifestation of volitional efforts. This is a simple imprint of what affected us and retained some trace of excitation in the cerebral cortex. For example, after a walk in the forest or after visiting the theater, we can remember much of what we saw, although we did not specifically set ourselves the task of remembering. In principle, every process that occurs in the cerebral cortex as a result of the influence of an external stimulus leaves behind traces, although the degree of their strength varies. What is remembered best is what is of vital importance to a person: everything that is connected with his interests and needs, with the goals and objectives of his activities. Therefore, even involuntary memorization, in a certain sense, is selective in nature and is determined by our attitude to the environment.
Unlike involuntary memorization voluntary (or intentional) memorization characterized by the fact that a person sets a specific goal - to remember some information - and uses special memorization techniques. Voluntary memorization is a special and complex mental activity subordinate to the task of remembering. In addition, voluntary memorization includes a variety of actions performed in order to better achieve a goal. Such actions, or methods of memorizing material, include memorization, the essence of which is repeated repetition of educational material until it is completely and error-freely memorized. For example, poems, definitions, laws, formulas, historical dates, etc. are memorized. It should be noted that, other things being equal, voluntary memorization is noticeably more productive than unintentional memorization.
main feature deliberate memorization- this is a manifestation of volitional efforts in the form of setting a memorization task. Repeated repetition allows you to reliably and firmly remember material that is many times greater than the capacity of individual short-term memory. Much of what is perceived in life a large number of times is not remembered by us if the task is not to remember. But if you set this task for yourself and perform all the actions necessary to implement it, memorization proceeds with relatively great success and turns out to be quite durable. Illustrating the importance of setting a memorization task, A. A. Smirnov cites as an example the case that happened with the Yugoslav psychologist P. Radossavlevich. He conducted an experiment with a person who did not understand the language in which the experiment was conducted. The essence of this experiment was to learn nonsense syllables. Usually, it took several repetitions to remember them. This time, the subject read them 20, 30, 40, and finally 46 times, but did not give the experimenter a signal that he remembered them. When the psychologist asked to repeat the series he had read by heart, the surprised subject, who did not understand the purpose of the experiment due to insufficient knowledge of the language, exclaimed: “How? So should I learn it by heart?” After which he read the series of syllables indicated to him six more times and repeated it without error.
Therefore, in order to remember as best as possible, it is imperative to set a goal - not only to perceive and understand the material, but also to really remember it.
It should be noted that great importance when memorizing, it has not only the formulation of a general task (to remember what is perceived), but also the formulation of particular, special tasks. In some cases, for example, the task is to remember only the essence of the material we perceive, only the main thoughts and the most significant facts, in others - to remember verbatim, in others - to accurately remember the sequence of facts, etc.
Thus, setting special tasks plays a significant role in memorization. Under its influence, the process of memorization itself can change. However, according to S. L. Rubinstein, memorization very much depends on the nature of the activity during which it is performed. Moreover, Rubinstein believed that it is impossible to draw unambiguous conclusions about the greater effectiveness of voluntary or involuntary memorization. The advantages of voluntary memorization are obvious only at first glance. Research by the famous Russian psychologist P.I. Zinchenko has convincingly proven that the orientation towards memorization, which makes it the direct goal of the subject’s action, is not in itself decisive for the effectiveness of the memorization process. In certain cases, involuntary memorization may be more effective than voluntary memorization. In Zinchenko's experiments, unintentional memorization of pictures during an activity whose purpose was to classify them (without the task of remembering) turned out to be definitely higher than in the case when the subject was given the task of specifically remembering the pictures.
A study by A. A. Smirnov, devoted to the same problem, confirmed that involuntary memorization can be more productive than intentional: what the subjects memorized involuntarily, along the way in the process of activity, the purpose of which was not memorization, was remembered more firmly than what they tried to remember specially. The essence of the experiment was that the subjects were presented with two phrases, each of which corresponded to a spelling rule (for example, “my brother is learning Chinese” and “you need to learn to write in short phrases”). During the experiment, it was necessary to establish which rule a given phrase belongs to and come up with another pair of phrases on the same topic. There was no requirement to memorize the phrases, but after a few days the subjects were asked to remember both those and other phrases. It turned out that the phrases they themselves came up with in the process of active activity were remembered about three times better than those that the experimenter gave them.
Consequently, memorization included in some activity turns out to be the most effective, since it turns out to depend on the activity during which it is performed.
What is remembered, as well as realized, is, first of all, what constitutes the goal of our action. However, what is not related to the goal of the action is remembered worse than with voluntary memorization aimed specifically at this material. However, it is still necessary to take into account that the vast majority of our systematic knowledge arises as a result of special activities, the purpose of which is to remember the relevant material in order to retain it in memory. Such activity aimed at remembering and reproducing retained material is called mnemonic activity.
Mnemonic activity is a specifically human phenomenon, because only in humans does memorization become a special task, and memorizing material, storing it in memory and remembering becomes a special form of conscious activity. At the same time, a person must clearly separate the material that he was asked to remember from all side impressions. Therefore, mnemonic activity is always selective.
It should be noted that the study of human mnemonic activity is one of the central problems of modern psychology. The main objectives of studying mnemonic activity are to determine the amount of memory available to a person and the maximum possible speed of memorizing material, as well as the time during which the material can be retained in memory. These tasks are not simple, especially since the processes of memorization in specific cases have a number of differences.
Another characteristic of the memorization process is the degree of comprehension of the memorized material. Therefore, it is customary to distinguish between meaningful and mechanical memorization.
Rote- this is memorization without awareness of the logical connection between various parts perceived material. An example of such memorization is memorizing statistical data, historical dates, etc. The basis of rote memorization is associations by contiguity. One piece of material connects with another only because it follows it in time. In order for such a connection to be established, the material must be repeated many times.
In contrast, meaningful memorization is based on understanding the internal logical connections between individual parts of the material. Two provisions, of which one is a conclusion from the other, are remembered not because they follow each other in time, but because they are logically connected. Therefore, meaningful memorization is always associated with thinking processes and relies mainly on generalized connections between parts of the material at the level of the second signaling system.
It has been proven that meaningful memorization is many times more productive than mechanical memorization. Rote memorization is wasteful and requires many repetitions. A person cannot always remember what he has learned mechanically in place and time. Meaningful memorization requires significantly less effort and time from a person, but is more effective. However, practically both types of memorization - mechanical and meaningful - are closely intertwined with each other. When learning by heart, we mainly rely on semantic connections, but the exact sequence of words is remembered using contiguity associations. On the other hand, by memorizing even incoherent material, we are, one way or another, trying to build meaningful connections. Thus, one of the ways to increase the volume and strength of memorization of unrelated words is to create a conditional logical connection between them. In certain cases, this connection may be meaningless in content, but very striking in terms of ideas. For example, you need to remember a number of words: watermelon, table, elephant, comb, button, etc. To do this, we will build a conditional logical chain of the following form: “The watermelon is on the table. An elephant sits at the table. There is a comb in the pocket of his vest, and the vest itself is fastened with one button.” And so on. Using this technique, within one minute you can remember up to 30 words or more (depending on the training) with a single repetition.
If we compare these methods of memorizing material - meaningful and mechanical - then we can come to the conclusion that meaningful memorization is much more productive. With mechanical memorization, only 40% of the material remains in the memory after one hour, and after a few hours - only 20%, and in the case of meaningful memorization, 40% of the material is retained in memory even after 30 days.
The advantage of meaningful memorization over mechanical memorization is very clearly demonstrated when analyzing the costs required to increase the volume of memorized material. When learning mechanically, as the volume of material increases, a disproportionately large increase in the number of repetitions is required. For example, if memorizing six nonsense words requires only one repetition, then learning 12 words requires 14-16 repetitions, and 36 words requires 55 repetitions. Therefore, when increasing the material by six times, it is necessary to increase the number of repetitions by 55 times. At the same time, with an increase in the volume of meaningful material (a poem), in order to remember it, it is necessary to increase the number of repetitions from two to 15 times, i.e., the number of repetitions increases by 7.5 times, which convincingly indicates the greater productivity of meaningful memorization. Therefore, let's take a closer look at the conditions that contribute to meaningful and lasting memorization of material.
Comprehension of the material is achieved by various techniques, and first of all, by highlighting the main thoughts in the material being studied and grouping them in the form of a plan. When using this technique, when memorizing a text, we divide it into more or less independent sections, or groups of thoughts. Each group includes something that has one common semantic core, a single theme. Closely related to this technique is the second way to facilitate memorization: highlighting semantic reference points. The essence this method lies in the fact that we replace each semantic part with some word or concept that reflects the main idea of the memorized material. Then, in both the first and second cases, we combine what we have learned by mentally making a plan. Each point of the plan is a generalized heading of a certain part of the text. The transition from one part to the next parts is a logical sequence of the main ideas of the text. When reproducing a text, the material is concentrated around the headings of the plan and is drawn towards them, which makes it easier to remember. The need to draw up a plan accustoms a person to thoughtful reading, comparison of individual parts of the text, clarification of the order and internal relationship of issues.
It has been found that students who make a plan when memorizing texts exhibit stronger knowledge than those who memorize the text without such a plan.
A useful technique for understanding the material is comparison, i.e., finding similarities and differences between objects, phenomena, events, etc. One of the options for this method is comparing the material being studied with what was previously obtained. Thus, when studying new material with children, the teacher often compares it with what has already been studied, thereby including new material in the knowledge system. The material is compared in a similar way with other information just received. For example, it is easier to remember the dates of birth and death of M. Yu. Lermontov if they are compared with each other: 1814 and 1841.
Comprehension of the material is also helped by its specification and explanation. general provisions and rules with examples, solving problems in accordance with the rules, making observations, laboratory work etc. There are other methods of comprehension.
The most important method of meaningful memorization of material and achieving high strength of its preservation is repetition method. Repetition - the most important condition mastering knowledge, skills and abilities. But to be productive, repetitions must meet certain requirements. The conducted research revealed some patterns in the use of the repetition method.
Firstly, memorization proceeds unevenly: after an increase in reproduction, there may be a slight decrease. Moreover, it is temporary in nature, since new repetitions provide a significant increase in recall.
Secondly, learning progresses in leaps and bounds. Sometimes several repetitions in a row do not provide a significant increase in recall, but then, with subsequent repetitions, there is a sharp increase in the volume of memorized material. This is explained by the fact that the traces left each time an object is perceived are at first insufficient for recall, but then, after several repetitions, their influence is felt immediately, and, moreover, in a large number of words.
Third, if the material as a whole is not difficult to remember, then the first repetitions give greater results than subsequent ones. Each new repetition gives a very slight increase in the volume of memorized material. This is explained by the fact that the main, easier part is memorized quickly, and the remaining, more difficult part requires a large number of repetitions.
Fourth If the material is difficult, then memorization proceeds, on the contrary, first slowly and then quickly. This is explained by the fact that the actions of the first repetitions are insufficient due to the difficulty of the material and the increase in the volume of memorized material increases only with repeated repetitions.
Fifthly, repetitions are needed not only when we learn the material, but also when we need to consolidate in memory what we have already learned. When repeating memorized material, its strength and duration of retention increase many times over.
In addition to the above-mentioned patterns of using the repetition method, there are conditions that contribute to increasing the efficiency of memorization. It is very important that the repetition is active and varied. To do this, the learner is given various tasks: to come up with examples, answer questions, draw a diagram, make a table, make a visual aid, etc. With active repetition, connections are revived at the level of the second signal system, since a variety of forms of repetition contributes to the formation of new connections of what is being studied. material with practice. As a result, memorization becomes more complete. Passive repetition does not give such an effect. In one experiment, students learned texts by repeating them five times. Analysis of the effectiveness of each reading showed that as soon as repetition becomes passive, memorization becomes unproductive.
It is also very important to correctly distribute the repetition over time. In psychology, there are two methods of repetition: concentrated and distributed. In the first method, the material is learned in one step, repetition follows one after another without interruption. For example, if it takes 12 repetitions to memorize a poem, then the student reads it 12 times in a row until he learns it. With distributed repetition, each read is separated from the other by some distance.
Conducted research shows that distributed repetition is more rational than concentrated repetition. It saves time and energy, promoting a more lasting assimilation of knowledge. In one study, two groups of schoolchildren memorized a poem in different ways: the first group - concentrated, the second - distributed. Complete memorization with the concentrated method required 24 repetitions, and with the distributed method - only 10, i.e. 2.4 times less. At the same time, distributed repetition also ensures greater strength of knowledge. Therefore, experienced teachers repeat educational material with students for a whole year, but in order to ensure that the children’s activity does not decrease, they diversify repetition techniques and include the material in new and new connections.
The method of reproduction during learning is very close to the method of distributed learning. Its essence lies in attempts to reproduce material that has not yet been fully learned. For example, you can learn the material in two ways:
- limit yourself to reading only and read until you are confident that you have learned it;
- read the material once or twice, then try to reproduce it, then read it again several times and try to reproduce it again, etc.
Experiments show that second option is much more productive and expedient. Learning is faster and retention is stronger.
The productivity of memorization also depends on how memorization is carried out: in general or in parts. In psychology, there are three ways to memorize large amounts of material: holistic, partial and combined. The first method (holistic) is that the material (text, poem, etc.) is read from beginning to end several times until completely mastered. In the second method (partial), the material is divided into parts and each part is learned separately. First, one part is read several times, then the second, then the third, etc. The combined method is a combination of holistic and partial. The material is first read in its entirety one or several times, depending on its volume and nature, then difficult parts are highlighted and memorized separately, after which the entire text is read in its entirety again. If the material, for example, a poetic text, is large in volume, then it is divided into stanzas, logically complete parts, and memorization occurs in this way: first, the text is read once or twice from beginning to end, its general meaning is clarified, then each part is memorized, after which the material is read in its entirety again.
Research by M. N. Shardakov showed that of these methods, the most appropriate is combined. It ensures uniform memorization of all parts of the material; it requires deep understanding and the ability to highlight the main thing. Such activities are carried out with greater concentration of attention, hence its greater productivity. In Shardakov’s experiments, students who memorized the poem in a combined way required only 9 repetitions, when memorizing as a whole - 14 repetitions, and when memorizing in parts - 16 repetitions.
It should be noted that the success of memorization largely depends on the level of self-control. A manifestation of self-control is attempts to reproduce the material while memorizing it. Such attempts help to establish what we remember, what mistakes we made during reproduction, and what we should pay attention to in subsequent reading. In addition, memorization productivity also depends on the nature of the material. Visual and figurative material is remembered better than verbal, and logically connected text is reproduced more completely than scattered sentences.
There are certain differences in memorizing descriptive and explanatory texts. Thus, primary and secondary school students remember literary passages and natural science descriptions better, and socio-historical texts worse. At the same time, in high school these differences are almost absent.
Thus, for successful memorization it is necessary to take into account the peculiarities of the mechanisms of the memorization process and use a variety of mnemonic techniques. In conclusion, let us schematically display the material presented.
Preservation, reproduction, recognition. We not only remember all the information that was perceived, but also save it for a certain time. Preservation as a memory process has its own laws. For example, it has been established that conservation can be dynamic or static. Dynamic conservation manifests itself in random access memory, and static - in long-term. With dynamic preservation, the material changes little; with static preservation, on the contrary, it necessarily undergoes reconstruction and certain processing.
Reconstruction of material stored in long-term memory occurs primarily under the influence of new information continuously arriving from our senses. Reconstruction manifests itself in various forms, for example, in the disappearance of some less significant details and their replacement with other details, in a change in the sequence of material, in the degree of its generalization.
Retrieving material from memory carried out through two processes - playback And recognition. Playback- this is the process of recreating the image of an object that we previously perceived, but is not perceived at the moment. Reproduction differs from perception in that it occurs after it and outside of it. Thus, the physiological basis of reproduction is the renewal of neural connections formed earlier during the perception of objects and phenomena.
Just like memorization playback May be unintentional(involuntary) and deliberate(arbitrary). In the first case, reproduction occurs unexpectedly for us. For example, when passing by the school where we studied, we can unexpectedly reproduce the image of the teacher who taught us, or the images of school friends. A special case of unintentional reproduction is the appearance of perseverative images, which are characterized by exceptional stability.
With voluntary recall, as opposed to involuntary recall, we remember with a consciously set goal. Such a goal is the desire to remember something from our past experience, for example when we set the goal to remember a well-learned poem. In this case, as a rule, the words “go by themselves.” There are cases when reproduction occurs in the form of more or less long-term recall. In these cases, the achievement of the set goal - to remember something - is carried out through the achievement of intermediate goals that allow solving the main task. For example, in order to remember an event, we try to remember all the facts that are in one way or another connected with it. Moreover, the use of intermediate links is usually of a conscious nature. We consciously outline what might help us remember, or think about how what we are looking for is related to it, or evaluate whatever we remember, or judge why it doesn't fit, etc. Therefore, the processes recall is closely related to thinking processes.
At the same time, when remembering, we often encounter difficulties. We first remember the wrong thing, reject it and set ourselves the task of remembering something again. Obviously, all this requires certain volitional efforts from us. Therefore, remembering is at the same time a volitional process.
In addition to reproduction, we constantly encounter such a phenomenon as recognition. Recognition of any object occurs at the moment of its perception and means that there is a perception of an object, the idea of which was formed in a person either on the basis of personal impressions (memory representation) or on the basis of verbal descriptions (imagination representation). For example, we recognize the house in which a friend lives, but which we have never been to, and recognition occurs due to the fact that this house was previously described to us, they were explained by what signs to find it, which was reflected in our ideas about it.
It should be noted that recognition processes differ from each other in the degree of certainty. Recognition is least certain in those cases when we only experience a feeling of familiarity of an object, but cannot identify it with anything from past experience. For example, we see a person whose face seems familiar to us, but we cannot remember who he is and under what circumstances we could have met him. Such cases are characterized by uncertainty of recognition. In other cases, recognition, on the contrary, is characterized by complete certainty: we immediately recognize the person as a certain person. Therefore, these cases are characterized by complete recognition.
It should be noted that there are many similarities between definite and indefinite recognition. Both of these variants of recognition unfold gradually, and therefore they are often close to recollection, and, therefore, are a complex mental and volitional process.
Along with different types correct recognition, there are also errors in recognition. For example, what is perceived for the first time sometimes seems familiar to us, having already been experienced once in exactly the same form. An interesting fact is that the impression of a familiar place can remain even when we know for sure that we have never seen this object or were not in this situation.
In addition, you should pay attention to another very interesting feature of recognition and reproduction. The processes of recognition and reproduction are not always carried out with equal success. Sometimes it happens that we can recognize an object, but we are unable to reproduce it when it is missing. There are cases of the opposite kind: we have some ideas, but we cannot say what they are connected with. For example, we are constantly “haunted” by some melody, but we cannot say where it comes from. Most often we experience difficulties in reproducing something, and much less often such difficulties arise in recognition. As a rule, we are able to find out when it is impossible to reproduce. Thus, we can conclude: recognition is easier than reproduction.
Forgetting is expressed in the inability to restore previously perceived information. The physiological basis of forgetting is certain types of cortical inhibition, which interferes with the actualization of temporary neural connections. Most often this is the so-called extinctive inhibition, which develops in the absence of reinforcement. Forgetting comes in two main forms:
- inability to remember or recognize;
- incorrect recall or recognition. Between complete recall and complete forgetting, there are varying degrees of recall and recognition.
Some researchers call them " memory levels" It is customary to distinguish three such levels:
- retrieval memory;
- recognition memory;
- memory aid.
For example, a student learned a poem. If after some time he can reproduce it flawlessly, that's it. first memory level, highest; if he cannot reproduce what he has memorized, but easily recognizes (recognizes) a poem in a book or by ear, this is second memory level; if the student is unable to either remember or recognize the poem on his own, but when he memorizes it again, it will take him less time to fully reproduce it than the first time, this is third memory level. Thus, the degree of manifestation may vary. At the same time, the nature of the manifestation of forgetting may be different. Forgetting can manifest itself in the schematization of material, discarding individual, sometimes significant, parts of it, and reducing new ideas to familiar old ideas.
It should be noted that forgetting occurs unevenly over time. The greatest loss of material occurs immediately after its perception, and later forgetting occurs more slowly. For example, Ebbinghaus's experiments, which we discussed in the first section of this chapter, showed that an hour after learning 13 meaningless syllables, forgetting reaches 56%, but then it goes slower. Moreover, the same pattern is characteristic of forgetting meaningful material. This can be confirmed by an experiment conducted by the American psychologist M. Jones. The experiment boiled down to the following: before the lecture on psychology began, Jones warned the students that at the end they would receive pieces of paper with questions about the content of the lecture, to which they would need to give written answers. The lecture was delivered at a speed of 75 words per minute, clearly and accessible. An outstanding lecturer invited to compare the data achieved almost the same thing: students immediately after the lecture reproduced 71% of his main thoughts, and then they forgot the perceived material: first faster, and then somewhat slower. From this experience, the conclusion follows that if students do not work on consolidating educational material in memory, after two months only 25% of it will remain, and the greatest loss (55%) will occur in the first three to four days after perception.
In order to slow down the process of forgetting, it is necessary to organize in a timely manner repetition of perceived material without delaying this work for long. This is well confirmed by the research of M. N. Shardakov. He found that if you do not repeat the received material on the day of receipt, then after a day 74% of the material is retained in memory, after three to four days - 66%, after a month - 58% and after six months - 38%. When repeating material on the first day, 88% is retained in memory every other day, after three or four days - 84%, after a month - 70% and after 6 months - 60%. If you organize periodic repetition of the material, then the volume of stored information will be quite large over a considerable period of time.
Considering various options for the manifestation of forgetting, one cannot help but mention cases when a person cannot remember something at the moment (for example, immediately after receiving information), but remembers or recognizes it after some time. This phenomenon is called reminiscences(vague memory). The essence of reminiscence lies in the fact that the reproduction of material that we could not immediately fully reproduce, within a day or two after perception, is replenished with facts and concepts that were missing during the first reproduction of the material. This phenomenon is often observed when reproducing large amounts of verbal material, which is due to fatigue of the nerve cells. Reminiscence is found more often in preschoolers and junior schoolchildren. This phenomenon occurs much less frequently in adults.
According to D.I. Krasilnikova, when reproducing material, reminiscence is observed in 74% of preschoolers, 45.5% of primary schoolchildren and 35.5% of schoolchildren in fifth-seventh grades. This is due to the fact that children do not always immediately properly comprehend the material when they perceive it and therefore convey it incompletely. They need some period of time to comprehend it, as a result of which the reproduction becomes more complete. If the material is comprehended immediately, then reminiscence does not occur. This explains the fact that the older the schoolchildren, the less often this phenomenon is observed in their memory.
Other forms of forgetting are false recall and false recognition. It is well known that over time, what we perceive loses its brightness and clarity in memory, becomes pale and unclear. However, changes in previously perceived material can also be of a different nature, when forgetting is expressed not in a loss of clarity and distinctness, but in a significant discrepancy between what is remembered and what was actually perceived. In this case, we remember something completely different from what actually happened, since in the process of forgetting a more or less deep restructuring of the perceived material took place, its significant qualitative processing. For example, one such example of processing may be the erroneous reproduction of a sequence of events in time. Thus, while clearly reproducing individual events, a person cannot remember their correct sequence. The main reason for this phenomenon, as shown by the research of L. V. Zankov, is that in the process of forgetting, random connections in time weaken, and instead of them, essential, internal relationships of things (logical connections, similarity of things, etc.) come to the fore. ), which do not always coincide with connections in time.
Currently, the factors influencing the rate of forgetting processes are known. Thus, forgetting occurs faster if the material is not sufficiently understood by the person. In addition, forgetting occurs faster if the material is uninteresting to a person and is not directly related to his practical needs. This explains the fact that adults remember better what relates to their profession, what is connected with their life interests, and schoolchildren remember well the material that fascinates them, and quickly forget what does not interest them. The rate of forgetting also depends on the volume of material and the degree of difficulty of its assimilation: the larger the volume of material or the more difficult it is to perceive. the faster the forgetting occurs. Another factor that accelerates the process of forgetting is the negative impact of activities following memorization. This phenomenon is called retroactive inhibition. Thus, in an experiment conducted by A. A. Smirnov, a group of schoolchildren were given a series of adjectives to learn, and immediately after that a second series of words. After learning the second row of words, we checked how many adjectives the children remembered. In another group of schoolchildren, they took a five-minute break between learning the first and second rows of words. It turned out that schoolchildren who learned series of words without a break reproduced 25% fewer adjectives than children who had a short break. In another experiment, after learning adjectives, children were given a series of numbers to memorize. In this case, the reproduction of a number of words fell by only 8%. In the third experiment, after memorizing words, difficult mental work took place - solving complex arithmetic problems. Word reproduction decreased by 16%.
Thus, retroactive inhibition is more pronounced if the activity follows without interruption or the subsequent activity is similar to the previous one, as well as if the subsequent activity is more difficult than the previous activity. The physiological basis of retroactive inhibition in the latter case is negative induction: a difficult activity inhibits an easier one. This pattern must be kept in mind when organizing academic work. It is especially important to observe breaks in classes, to alternate academic subjects so that there are significant differences between them - subjects that are difficult to master should be placed before easy ones.
Another significant factor influencing the rate of forgetting is age. With age, many memory functions deteriorate. Memorizing material becomes more difficult, and the processes of forgetting, on the contrary, accelerate.
The main significant causes of forgetting that goes beyond the average are various diseases of the nervous system, as well as severe mental and physical trauma (bruises associated with loss of consciousness, emotional trauma). In these cases, a phenomenon called retrograde amnesia sometimes occurs. It is characterized by the fact that forgetting covers the period preceding the event that caused amnesia. Over time, this period may decrease, and even moreover, forgotten events may be fully restored in memory.
Forgetting also occurs more quickly when you are mentally or physically tired. Forgetting can also be caused by the action of extraneous stimuli that prevent us from concentrating on the necessary material, for example, annoying sounds or objects in our field of vision.
1. Psyche is:
A. Objective image of reality;
B. Subjective perception of the surrounding world;
B. Subjective image of objective reality;
D. Reflection of the internal properties of the individual.
2. The assumption about the reflexive nature of the psyche was first expressed by:
A. Hippocrates
B. Helmholtz
V. Gall
G. Descartes
3. Objective methods of psychology include:
A. Observation
B. Rorschach technique
B. Twin method
D. Laboratory experiment
4. The minimum magnitude of the stimulus at which a barely noticeable sensation first occurs is called:
A. Relative threshold of sensation;
B. Differential threshold of sensation;
B. The absolute lower threshold of sensation;
D. Relative lower threshold of sensation.
5. The analyzer consists of:
A. Receptor;
B. Sensory neurons;
V. Center nal department;
D. Centrifugal neurons.
6. Skin sensations include:
A. Tactile;
B. Temperature;
B. Painful;
G. Motor
7. A long-term deficit of sensations is called:
A. Synesthesia;
B. Sensory deprivation;
B. Adaptation;
D. Cognitive dissonance.
8. Extrareceptive contact sensations include:
A. Auditory;
B. Tactile;
B. Visual; G. Olfactory.
9. The occurrence of an additional sensation that is not related to the stimulus is called:
A. Hallucination;
B. Synesthesia;
B. Sensitization;
D. Substitution.
10. The ability to perceive objects as relatively constant in shape, color and size when the conditions of perception change is called:
A. Subject matter;
B. Integrity;
B. Constancy;
D. Categoricality.
11. The result of perception is:
A. Feeling;
B. Image;
B. Object; G. Subject.
12. Incorrect, distorted perception of real objects is called:
A. Hallucination;
B. Phi phenomenon; B. Effect of novelty;
G. Illusion.
13. The main memory processes include:
A. Perception;
B. Memorization; B. Memory;
D. Forgetting.
14. Spontaneous and sudden memory called:
A. Insight;
B. Hypermnesia;
B. Reminiscence;
G. Paramnesia.
15. Loss of the ability to remember is called:
A. Cryptomnesia;
B. Forgetting;
B. Confabulation; D. Eidetic memory.
16. The process of voluntary memorization includes:
A. Instant;
B. Timely;
B. Meaningful; G. Mnemotechnical.
17. Attention has specific characteristics:
A. Volume;
B. Efficiency;
B. Sustainability;
D. Integrity.
18. There are types of attention:
A. Arbitrary;
B. derivative;
B. Pre-arbitrary; G. Post-voluntary.
19. Active forms of imagination include:
A. Productive;
B. Non-productive C. Reproductive;
D. Involuntary.
20. The result of imagination is:
A. Judgment;
B. Concept;
B. Image;
D. Inference.
21. Thinking operations include:
A. Deduction;
B. Analysis;
B. Abstraction;
D. Inference.
22. Dreams are an example of imagination:
A. Active creative;
B. Active reproductive;
B. Passive unintentional;
D. Passive intentional.
23. An example of active creative imagination is:
A. Fantastic story;
B. Painting “The Ninth Wave” by Aivazovsky;
V. Dreams;
G. Medieval serenade.
24. Judgment is the result of:
A. Perceptions;
B. Imaginations; B. Thoughts;
G. Fantasies.
25. Abstraction refers to:
A. To the forms of thinking;
B. To the properties of imagination;
B. To the operations of thinking;
G. On the functions of imagination.
26. A person’s ability to easily operate with symbols refers to the type of thinking:
A. Subject-effective;
B. Abstract;
B. Visually-figurative; G. Verbal-logical.
27. The narrowest concept in personality psychology is the concept: A. Man;
B. Individual;
B. Individuality;
G. Personality.
28. The following are considered prerequisites for the development of abilities:
A. Systematic classes;
B. Makings; B. Talent;
G. Genius:
29. The process and result of a person’s assimilation of social experience is called:
A. Socialization;
B. Personalization;
B. Individualization;
D. Depersonalization
30. The stable influence of the first personal information on the formation of an image is called: A. The effect of novelty;
B. The primacy effect; B. Implicit theory of personality;
G. Zeigarnik effect.
31. Developed mathematical abilities include:
A. To natural abilities;
B. To specific general abilities;
B. To specific subject-activity abilities;
D. To specific special abilities.
32. The process of a person’s formation of unique personal qualities is called: A. Socialization;
B. Personalization; B. Individualization;
D. Depersonalization.
33. Individual personality characteristics that ensure successful activity are called:
A. Abilities;
B. Inclinations;
B. Talents; G. Giftedness.
34. Self-image includes the following components:
A. Cognitive;
B. Conditioned; B. Emotional;
G. Volevoy.
35. The basis of character is:
A. Mental stability;
B. Facial features;
B. Strong-willed traits;
G. Mental mobility;
36. Temperament is called:
A. A unique individual combination of psychological personality traits;
B. An individually unique, naturally determined set of dynamic manifestations of the psyche;
B. Individual style of activity of the individual;
D. A set of stable, psychologically individual personality traits that reflect a person’s attitude towards himself, others and work.
37. A person with a set of unique traits inherent only to him is called:
A. Personality;
B. Individual;
B. Individuality;
G. Unicum
38. An individual who has gained experience in communicating and interacting with other people is called:
A. Personality;
B. Individual;
B. Individuality;
G. Unicum
39. A person who has perfect skills in any activity is called: A. Talented;
B. Capable;
B. Gifted;
G. Brilliant
40. If a person shows himself knowledgeable and interested in many areas of knowledge or activity, then he:
A. Brilliant;
B. Gifted;
V. Talented;
G. Unique
41. A complex, permanent, established attitude of a person towards something, a personality trait, is:
A. Experience;
B. Feeling;
B. Emotion;
D. Need
42. Emotions, the experience of which leads to fatigue, weakness, powerlessness, are called: A. Negative;
B. Positive; B. Asthenic;
G. Stenic.
43. An emotionally difficult experience by a person of his failure, accompanied by a feeling of hopelessness, the collapse of hopes in achieving a certain desired goal, is called:
A. Passion;
B. Affect;
44. The stages of experiencing a stressful state include:
A. Exhaustion;
B. Voltage;
B. Excitement;
D. Braking.
45. A short-term strong emotional experience, similar to an emotional “explosion”, is called:
A. Affect;
B. Stress;
B. Mood; G. Frustration.
46. A stressful state experienced over a short period of time and having positive consequences is called:
A. Frustration
B. Di-stress;
B. Eu-stress;
G. Mood.
47. What type of feelings include indignation and indignation:
A. Practical;
B. Intellectual; B. Moral;
G. Aesthetic.
48. Fear refers to a type of emotion according to the characteristics of its influence on the activity of an individual:
A. Ambivalent;
B. Stenic;
V. Asthenic;
G. Sustainable
Reproduction can be defined as a memory process, as a result of which the previously fixed content of the psyche is updated by extracting it from long-term memory and transferring it to operational memory.
The process of actualization (restoration of previously learned material) can be characterized by varying degrees of difficulty or ease of occurrence: from “automatic” recognition of objects around us to painfully difficult recall of forgotten things. In accordance with this, highlighting its various types within the reproduction process, we can arrange them in the following order: recognition, reproduction itself (which can be involuntary or voluntary) and remembering. A special place is occupied by memories - the historical memory of an individual.
Photo: Jean-Etienne Minh-Duy Poirrier
Recognition
Recognition is the reproduction of an object under conditions of repeated perception. Recognition is of great vital importance. Without it, we would each time perceive objects as new, and not as already familiar to us. Recognition always connects our experience with the perception of surrounding objects and thereby gives us the opportunity to correctly navigate the surrounding reality.
Recognition varies in the degree of its certainty, clarity and completeness. It can be carried out as an involuntary or voluntary process. Usually, when recognition is complete, clear, and definite, it is carried out as a one-time involuntary act. We involuntarily, without any effort, imperceptibly for ourselves, in the process of perception, recognize the object that we previously perceived. Involuntary recognition is included in a person's daily activities. But recognition can be very incomplete and therefore uncertain. Thus, when we see a person, we may experience a “feeling of familiarity,” but we will not be able to identify this person with the one we knew in the past. It also happens that we recognize a person, but cannot remember the conditions under which we previously perceived him. In cases of too incomplete or insufficiently complete recognition, it can acquire a complex arbitrary character. Based on the perception of an object, we deliberately recall various circumstances in order to clarify its recognition. In this case, recognition is transformed into reproduction.
Involuntary and voluntary reproduction
Reproduction itself, in contrast to recognition, is carried out without repeated perception of the object that is being reproduced. Reproduction is usually caused by the content of the activity that a person is carrying out at the moment, although this activity is not specifically aimed at reproduction. Such reproduction will be involuntary. However, it does not happen by itself, without a push. The impetus for involuntary reproduction is the perception of objects, ideas, thoughts, caused, in turn, by certain external influences. Involuntary reproduction, even when it is caused by accidentally perceived objects, may not be chaotic, but directed. The direction and content of reproduced images and thoughts are determined by those associations that were formed in our past experience.
“In the old house,” wrote I.M. Sechenov, “where our childhood took place, every corner of it is full of pictures of the past... events and faces, registered in memory along with the external environment that surrounded them, form the same inextricable group or association, like memorized verses, and such a group can be reproduced with a hint of any of its links...". Sometimes the impetus for reproduction is not noticed by us, and then it seems to us that the reproduction arose by itself.
Involuntary reproduction can be directed and organized when it is caused not by randomly perceived objects, but by the content of a certain activity that a person is performing at the moment. Thus, under the influence of the content of a book read, a person’s involuntary reproduction of his past experience will be more directed and organized. It follows from this that involuntary reproduction, as well as involuntary memorization, can and should be controlled. The more systematically and logically the teacher constructs the lesson, the more organized will be the content of past experience that is involuntarily reproduced by schoolchildren during classes.
Voluntary reproduction is caused by the reproductive task that a person sets for himself. In cases where the material is firmly fixed, reproduction occurs easily. But sometimes it is not possible to remember what is needed, and then you have to do an active search, overcoming certain difficulties. Such reproduction is called recall.
Recall, like voluntary remembering, can be a very complex mental activity. The ability to remember well has to be learned. The effectiveness and readiness to use your knowledge depends on it. As a rule, good memorization also ensures good recall. But the success of recall largely depends on the conditions under which and how it is carried out.
Research shows that the success of recall depends on how clearly and accurately the content of the reproductive task is understood. If there is difficulty in remembering, it is necessary to move from a wide range of knowledge to an increasingly narrow one, according to the reproductive task. In this case, it is necessary to widely use comparison, comparison of associations with what needs to be reproduced. Recall, like memorization, is also selective. A well-conscious and precisely formulated reproductive task directs the further course of recall, helps select the necessary material in our memory and inhibits side associations.
The success of recall depends on what recall techniques are used. The most important will be the following: drawing up a plan for the recalled material; active evocation of images of relevant objects; the deliberate evocation of mediating associations that, in a roundabout way, lead to the reproduction of what is needed.
The success of recall significantly depends on how motivated the implementation of the reproductive task is.
Recall is not a simple reproduction of past impressions. The knowledge we have acquired in the past, when reproduced, is associated with new knowledge, arranged in a new way, and realized more deeply. Confidence in the ability to remember has a great influence on the act of reproduction.
Memory
Memory is the reproduction of images of our past, localized in time and space. When remembering, we not only reproduce objects of the past, but also relate them to a specific time and place, that is, we remember where, when, under what circumstances they were perceived by us, we associate them with certain periods of our life, and we are aware of their temporal sequence.
The life story of every person is connected with social life. Events of social life serve as reference points for a person to localize his memories in time. When remembering something, we say: it was on the eve of the 50th anniversary of the October Revolution, it was after the Great Patriotic War, etc. Memories are also associated with complex mental activity necessary for understanding the content of the events being reproduced, their sequence, and the causal relationship between them . Therefore, the content of our memories does not remain unchanged. It's dynamic. It is reconstructed and rethought in connection with the evolution of personality orientation. Since memories in one way or another relate to a person’s personal life, they are always accompanied by a number of emotions.
Janet Pierre(May 30, 1859 - February 24, 1947) - French neuropsychiatrist, psychiatrist and neuropathologist. Starting from the works of the French physician J. Charcot, he developed an original psychological concept of neuroses. In the 20-30s he formulated a general psychological theory of behavior, in contrast to behaviorism, including consciousness in the system of psychology. Janet tried to carry out a historical approach to the human psyche, especially highlighting and analyzing the actual human, social and cultural forms of behavior. Janet's views had a significant influence on the development of French psychology (Piaget and others), as well as on the formation of Vygotsky's cultural-historical theory.
Essays: Neuroses and fixed ideas. St. Petersburg, 1903; Neuroses. M., 1911; Mental automatism. M., 1913; L "evolution de la memoire et de la notion du temps. Paris, 1928; De I"angaisse a I"extase, vol. 1-2; Les debuts de Vin-telligance, 1935.
Only in rare cases and under unusual circumstances are mental actions isolated and impersonal; usually they reveal a certain character and personality. To study automatic actions that occur under more complex conditions and approach normal ones, we must take those psychological states that are accessible to experiment and in which at the same time character and personality begin to develop: these conditions are best satisfied by the state known as somnambulism.
In fact, in somnambulists the automatic life of the psyche increases, a special memory is formed, a different character and a new personality appear. By studying the essence and characteristic features of this new form of mental activity, we actually become acquainted with the activity of the elements of our consciousness in a different connection.
Significant signs of somnambulism: forgetting upon awakening and changes in memory.
Memory should be considered the most important phenomenon of our mental organization, and even insignificant changes in it have a huge impact on our entire psyche. In all mental pathology there is no more complex and at the same time more permanent change in memory than that observed in somnambulists. In fact, in persons who fall into somnambulism, one can always state three characteristic signs or laws of memory: 1) complete forgetting in reality of what happened during somnambulism; 2) complete memory in the next seizure of what happened in the previous seizure; 3) complete recollection in a somnambulistic state of what took place in reality. The third law admits, perhaps, more exceptions and irregularities than the first two; Therefore, in this work, which aims to give a general idea of somnambulism, we will not dwell on it. But the first two signs, despite all their complexity and diversity, are so general and important that they can be considered characteristic signs of somnambulism.
The forgetting upon awakening of everything that happened in somnambulism is so interesting and amazing that it was noted already in the first studies on this issue. “Returning to a normal state,” says Deleuze, “the subject loses the memory of all the sensations and ideas that he had during somnambulism, and these two states seem so alien to each other, as if the somnambulist and the awakened subject were completely different creatures... Only this circumstance is a constant and essential sign of somnambulism." “Forgetting everything that happens in a hypnotic sleep,” writes Baragnon, “is an invariable sign, without which somnambulism cannot exist.” Braid also characterizes somnambulism by forgetting upon awakening everything that happened in a dream, calling this a split consciousness. It is useless to multiply the number of passages which can be borrowed from both ancient and modern authors. To clarify this
I have cited these two observations because they are little known, but it is very easy to cite a lot of cases of the same kind. There is a known case with a patient of Doctor Mesnet, who at night calmly puts copper coins in a glass of water for infusion and writes that she wants to die; then she locks her remedy in a closet, hides the key, and awakens. The next night the attack recurs and she goes to the closet to get her glass. There is also a known patient, Despine, who steals gold coins from himself every night and always hides them in the same place. As for Dr. Azam’s observations of Felida and Albert X. and Defay’s descriptions of somnambulism, they are now classics.
The same phenomenon is easy to ascertain during delirium, which occurs after an epileptic and especially after a hysterical attack. At the end of her fits, Rose had a bad habit of scolding the hospital maid. When she came to her senses, she did not remember this and did not believe when they told her. However, in the next fit, she again began to scold and persistently shouted: “I had reason to say such and such, it’s true,” and she repeated all the details of the previous nonsense.
Some authors have argued that in the most ordinary dreams memory has the same character and that the words of Dupotet are true: “there is no sleep without somnambulism.” In Myers's work one can find many examples - too long to be given here - in which the dream is apparently the memory of another forgotten dream. In order to illuminate these questions about memory, it is important to point out that
Dr. Herbert Mayo gives a case in which a man had five different degrees of memory: his normal state was interrupted by four different painful states, of which he retained no memory upon awakening; Meanwhile, each of these abnormal states had a special form of memory inherent in it. In 1887, I myself noted this kind of phenomenon, which I first observed on Lucy; after ordinary somnambulism, she fell into somnambulism of the second kind, in which she revealed excellent memory and recalled all her mental states, including hysterical attacks. From this new state, she again fell into somnambulism of the first kind and no longer remembered anything that had just happened to her; the memory of somnambulism of the second kind surfaced in her only when I again brought her into this state.
In the same year, de Rochas noted a similar phenomenon on his subject Benoit: “If,” he says, “we continue to apply this to Benoit (we are talking about applying a magnet to a subject who has already gone through one somnambulistic state and is in lethargy), then a fifth state can be induced, which is similar to somnambulism in that the subject is restored to his mental faculties; memory and most senses, except visual, are even heightened; upon awakening he forgets everything that happened in this state, but remembers everything again when falls into the same state again! .
These two hypotheses refute each other, without at all taking into account the fact that during somnambulism, mental phenomena that are very different in strength and brightness are observed; finally, they are not able to explain the complete restoration of memory during new somnambulism of the same stage. Despine attributes the forgetting of what happened to the subject during somnambulism to the complete disappearance of our “I” and our consciousness during this abnormal phenomenon. “Forgetting can only be explained by the fact that personal consciousness and our “I” do not participate in acts that are performed thanks to the unconscious automatic activity of the brain, that is, at the time
In this theory about the disappearance of our “I”, there may be something corresponding to the truth, but to conclude from this that during somnambulism there is no consciousness of any kind seems to us truly paradoxical and unacceptable. I think more attention should be paid to Maury's theory about the significance of the association of ideas for memory, but, as he himself notes, the somnambulists' forgetting of everything that happens in somnambulism cannot be explained only by a break in the chain of associations. If somnambulists, immediately after awakening, do not always see in front of them an object or movement associated with or reminiscent of previous acts, then, probably, during the day they can see these objects or perform the same actions that were performed during somnambulism. Why is the power of associations not revealed at this moment and does not evoke memories? One day Leonia was picking a bouquet of flowers in a hypnotic dream; when she woke up, I gave her this bouquet: why doesn’t she understand where it came from? Why, by association of ideas, does she not remember that she collected it herself?
Some magnetizers have expressed a very correct view regarding changes in sensitivity during somnambulism. “With any somnambulism,” says Bertrand, “there is a more or less complete disappearance of sensitivity and movements of external organs. Sensitivity rushes inward: the somnambulist receives new perceptions from internal organs, and the totality of these perceptions forms a new life, different from the one that we constantly lead." This is almost the same thing that Ribot expressed when he allowed changes in cenesthesia or general sensitivity during somnambulism - changes that apparently become the center new associations and memory.
These views seem to us to be generally correct, but we must agree that they are rather vague and difficult to apply in individual cases. Therefore, we, for our part, will try to give a general explanation of the strange phenomena of forgetting and various forms of memory. Our hypothesis is just as imperfect as the previous theory, and does not at all have any claim to cover all phenomena
Remembering and forgetting complex phenomena
After this brief consideration of the conditions for the emergence of elementary memory, let us move on to complex or intellectual memory, that is, to the complete recollection of ideas and acts. Here our task is made easier by the wonderful psychological research Charcot about the gift of speech and different types of thinking. It is known, in fact, that complex actions and ideas are understood by us and stored in memory mainly through speech. Consequently, to study the conditions for remembering complex ideas and acts means to study the conditions for remembering speech.
Our speech consists of numerous images associated with our ideas and movements; but these images, as medicine teaches, are not the same for all people. Some think with the help of motor or kinesthetic images, which we have already talked about and which, when isolated, tend to be transmitted externally in real movements or words. These people, whether speaking loudly or quietly, always think using motor images of speech.
Others think in auditory or visual images; Their thinking consists of a series of images of speech, which they seem to hear, but do not pronounce, or from a series of written signs or images, which they seem to see, but do not hear. How do these latter persons speak and act? Do not their auditory and visual images awaken more or less weak motor images, which then manifest themselves in movements? We have already discussed this question and decided that, perhaps, this is how things are at the beginning of life; subsequently, things become much simpler. The sound of a word is transmitted in movements that express both this word and the motor image itself. The habit of speaking and acting with the help of auditory and visual images joins the habit of thinking in these images and contributes to a greater separation of types of thinking. If all thoughts and actions are dependent
All these individuals are known to change in their character and behavior when their sensitivity and speech patterns change. Felida is sad and thinks about suicide in the first state, but becomes cheerful and brave in the second; she is selfish and cold in the first state, sensitive and capable of self-sacrifice in the second. Louis is sometimes humble, obedient and timid, sometimes angry and arrogant, sometimes fearful like a child, sometimes ardent like a youth.
There are very few transitional steps between these natural personality changes and those that occur during artificial somnambulism. In general it can be said that by hypnosis it is possible, although not always, to bring a subject into one or another of his various abnormal states and thereby restore to the subject those characteristic properties and memories which are inherent in him in a given mental state. This was often confirmed in relation to various states of Louis and, in general, to any hysterical delirium.
But the most interesting thing is to observe the easy transition from natural delirium to artificial somnambulism - a transition similar to the transformation of hysterical poses into catalepsy. I once had to catch Maria in a strong hysterical fit; she had been squirming on her bed and screaming for two hours now. I had only to touch her and say: “Well, what are you doing here? Behave better,” as she, continuing her convulsions, shakes my hand and answers: “Oh, if you only knew how much my side hurts!” - “Get up and go to sleep well, I will cure you.” She gets up with her eyes closed and lies down on her bed. I calm her down a little, and she says: “It’s very good that you came: I saw terrible things - blood, fire; I felt very bad.” Now this is already somnambulism, which
is a weak modification of her hysterical delirium, since she retains the memory of it and at one word of mine can fall into it again.
Another hysterical woman, G., is even more curious. I approached her while two maids were holding her, as she was having a seizure. Before I had time to touch her, she said, turning to me: “ah, here you are”... and the convulsions immediately stopped. This is the case with people who often fell into artificial somnambulism; the latter obscures all other abnormal existences. In other people, the opposite phenomenon occurs: artificial somnambulism either turns into a hysterical attack, or is simply a reproduction of this latter. From this point of view, the most convincing is the observation of Grasset, in whose patient artificial somnambulism was completely similar to her voluntary hysterical attacks. J. Janet showed me a young girl of the same kind: she had spontaneous attacks of somnambulism, during which she remained motionless, with her eyes closed, and talked all the time. Her hallucinations always revolved around two or three identical ideas - funny stories or anger against doctors and interns, whom she called “butchers, pigs,” etc. If she is hypnotized, she always takes the same pose and continues her delirium "about those nasty doctors who grabbed another poor woman to cut her open." The former magnetizers were right when they said that nervous attacks are like imperfect somnambulism.
Consecutive change of various mental existences.—Personality changes during artificial somnambulism
So, we have seen that changes in memory can be easily explained by changes in the images included in the consciousness at a certain moment, and that these changes in memory lead to a change in the personality or the entire mental life. Now we can get a general idea of
artificial somnambulism - about that special condition, which has long been considered supernatural and inexplicable. The somnambulistic state, as we showed above, does not have any characteristic properties that could be considered specific: if you take a person and examine him only at this single moment, then it is impossible to determine exactly what state he is in. The somnambulistic state is characterized only by relative signs and can be defined only in relation to another state of a given person - the waking or normal state. “Whoever had the opportunity to observe somnambulists,” said former magnetizers who were well versed in this issue, “was convinced that in the life of somnambulists there are two completely different existences, or at least two types of existence.” This is absolutely true: somnambulism is a second existence, which is characterized only by the fact that it is second.
Thus, the so often repeated truth becomes clear that in somnambulism there is not a single phenomenon - anesthesia or, conversely, heightened senses, paralysis, contracture, etc. - that would not be observed in another person in a normal state; but in the latter this symptom is constant and normal throughout life, and in the first case it is only accidental and is observed only during the second existence; In essence, these are one and the same sign. A subject who in somnambulism is an idiot, blind or intelligent, appears to him in the same form as a person who is an idiot, blind or intelligent throughout his life - with the only difference that in the former this is not observed throughout his life . Rosa, in one of her deep somnambulisms, experienced anesthesia only on the left side of her body; this condition is not normal for her at present because during the seven months that I have been seeing her, she has had complete anesthesia of her entire body at all times. This condition does not last long, because if I wake her up or even leave her alone, she little by little loses sensation on the left side of her body and returns to her normal state, in which she no longer feels anything.
However, this condition, which we call Rosa’s somnambulism, is normal for Maria, since for a month now she has been experiencing anesthesia for the entire left half of her body. Moreover, Rose herself, some time ago, suffered for three months from anesthesia on the left side of her body; therefore, for her during these three months the state that now occurs with somnambulism was natural. And if you wake her up, will she forget everything? Without a doubt; but she also forgot everything when, after three months of semi-health, she awoke completely insensible. If I, who belongs to the motor type of people, had found a way to immediately convey to my neighbor, the artist, who belongs to the visual type, the state of my sensitivity, he would have forgotten his past life, which, however, seemed completely normal.
From this point of view, we also understand the endless variety of somnambulists, which is as great as the diversity of the people around us: somnambulists can acquire all sorts of mental properties that are not observed in them in a normal state; Sometimes completely intelligent people fall into a state during somnambulism that is usually characteristic of idiots. One epileptic boy, whom I easily put to sleep, showed insignificant signs of mental life during somnambulism: he retained a little muscle feeling (his hands remained in the position that I gave them) and a little hearing (he answered all my questions with some kind of muttering). ). But that's all; Moreover, he did not understand anything and, therefore, did not obey suggestions; could not speak, so it would be difficult and useless to investigate his memories. L. in somnambulism suffers from a complete lack of memory; like the somnambulist of whom Dr. Philips speaks, who forgot one syllable as he uttered another, he immediately forgot what I was saying to him at the moment. At the very least, he could carry out simple suggestions at the very moment they were given; After some time, he could no longer do anything, because he forgot the data given to him
orders. On the contrary, N, about whom I spoke above, has an amazing memory in somnambulism; even after a whole year has passed, she remembers the smallest details of the previous somnambulism. All other somnambulists whom I have observed, in the second existence, display an ordinary and sometimes even a remarkable mind and express feelings and ideas characteristic of persons of their position.
Subjects possessing special memory, sensations and intelligence in the second existence are a very curious, but still understandable phenomenon. In this new life they learn new moral rules and new concepts, just as they did in their first existence (normal life).
But one can imagine what can happen with frequently repeated and prolonged somnambulism. First of all, the second personality will be under the influence of his magnetizer, just as a child is under the influence of his parents; by virtue of this influence, the second personality will adopt the habits, manners and concepts of its magnetizer - regardless of whether the latter wants it or not. It can be said that as is the magnetizer, so is the somnambulist. Show me a somnambulist, and I will be able to tell who put her to sleep and what are the opinions and concepts - scientific or otherwise - of her first magnetizer. Why is Leonia a zealous Catholic in reality, but a convinced Protestant in somnambulism? Simply because her first magnetizer was a Protestant; there is no need to look for another reason here. Why do some somnambulists constantly assume various dramatic poses? Because they were shown to the public as curious animals, and they learned to play and simulate dramatic situations while in a real somnambulistic state. This involuntary education of the somnambulist on the part of the one who puts her to sleep is the greatest danger of such experiments: we risk always finding confirmation of our own ideas in the somnambulist. In the introduction we pointed out some precautions that we tried to take in our experiments; but still, our research can acquire general significance only after control experiments by other authors.
Whatever the influence of education on the subject, the latter brings into his somnambulistic existence,
like children in their normal lives, their own predispositions and special abilities. Beaunis says that he has never heard a lie from the lips of a somnambulist. He must have been very happy in this regard: there are somnambulists who lie, such as Lucy; others, on the contrary, are very honest, like Leonia; in a word, the same thing is observed here as in normal life, where both bad and good elements are found. It is necessary to take into account not only the influence of the magnetizer, but also the influence of all other persons talking with the subject in his new state, contributing to the development of this latter. To prove this, it is enough to describe one of our patients, Leonia, on whom all these influences acted in the most curious way. This woman, whose life is an implausible, although real, novel, has had fits of natural somnambulism since the age of three. From the age of sixteen, various persons constantly put her to sleep; She is now 45 years old. Her usual life takes place in a poor rural environment, but her second existence took place in salons or in a psychological office and naturally took a completely different direction. Now in her normal state this is a poor peasant woman - serious and a little sad; calm and slow; very friendly with everyone around her and extremely timid; seeing her like this, it is impossible to even suspect the existence of a second personality in her. After euthanization and a transitional period, she experiences an “awakening to another life,” and she is completely transformed: her face changes, her eyes remain closed, but the loss of vision is compensated by the acuity of her other senses; she is cheerful, active, sometimes even unbearably noisy; is still kind, but she has a strange desire to be ironic and make evil jokes. There is nothing more interesting than talking to her at the end of the session after the visit of several new people who wanted to see her in somnambulism. She copies their faces to me, imitates their manners, tries to guess their little funny sides and petty passions, invents a whole novel about each of them.
To this new character is added an extraordinary number of new memories, which she even remembers in reality.
does not suspect, because upon waking up he always forgets everything. Recently, a doctor from Le Havre, who often saw this woman in somnambulism and was then one of her friends (in somnambulism she does not pay attention to everyone), met her outside the city in her normal state; forgetting under what circumstances he had seen her before, he approached her to say hello. Poor woman she stopped in amazement, as she did not recognize him at all. There are many things that she knows only in somnambulism. Yes, finally, this would not even correspond to the laws of elementary psychology if this entire set of somnambulistic sensations, memories, habits and properties were folded into a synthesis or system similar to that which forms our normal personality. This is not at all the face that we know in a normal state, and from the first it is impossible to form an idea about the second. As is known, somnambulists in the second state retain the memory of their first state and, therefore, can themselves make comparisons between their two personalities. It is very interesting to know what they think about the change that has happened to them.
More often than not, especially in the first sessions, when the subject has many memories of the first state and very few of the second, he simply feels changed. Most of them say that they are sleeping, and there is nothing more curious than these faces who, talking with open eyes, repeat from time to time: “It’s true that I’m sleeping, oh, I’m sleeping well.” I think that this is a ready-made phrase that has no meaning. Somnambulists claim that they sleep because they have been told that they are being put to sleep, and because, in the ordinary mind, to hypnotize means to put to sleep. You should not repeat this too often to a somnambulist, because in the end she considers herself obliged to actually sleep and gives her face a dull expression, which is not at all necessary.
More intelligent people told me: “Yes, no, I’m not sleeping at all, it’s absurd to say that; I just changed, became somehow strange - what did you do to me?” Now we can already guess what happened to them - we know that we took advantage of their mental instability to change the state of their sensitivity, paralyzing or, more often, stimulating one of their sense organs. This change in the subject sometimes manifests itself in a crude objective form: the patient, being deaf in normal
state, in somnambulism hears; a person who does not feel or see anything in reality acquires a subtle sense of touch and the ability to see even in the dark. All the individuals we mentioned showed a similar change in the area of sensitivity and often even corresponding changes in the motor area; since they retained memories of their first state and could make comparisons, it was natural that they found it “very funny.” Sometimes somnambulists remain with this opinion, without changing their view; the difference between somnambulism and the normal state is not expressed so strongly in them that they can give themselves an account of the splitting of personality that has occurred. Lucy in her first somnambulism, even after numerous sessions, always remained the same and constantly repeated: “It’s me - Lucy, but you have changed me.” Sometimes changes can be significant, but they occur so gradually and imperceptibly that the subject, having become accustomed, so to speak, to the change, retains his identity. This is the case with Rose, who, during her three or four successive somnambulistic states, constantly answers the corresponding question: “it’s still me, but not quite the same.”
Often things happen differently: the subject either gradually - as the second existence unfolds, or suddenly - due to too drastic a change - refuses to recognize himself, mocks his first personality and declares that he is a new person.
This strange habit of somnambulists to split in two in this way occurs very often and was noted by the very first researchers. “Somnambulists,” says De-leuze, “speak of themselves in the third person, as if in a normal state and in somnambulism they are two different persons... Adelaide never recognized her identity with Little One, as she called herself in somnambulism.” Everyone who has written about animal magnetism has mentioned this fact, which is as frequent as it is curious.
N., who at first considered herself only changed, soon declared that she was a different person. "Who are you?" — I asked. “I don’t know... I think it’s a patient.” Without dwelling on this strange answer, which, perhaps, is not
so ridiculous, I asked her what her name was; she took it into her head to call herself Nichette. This diminutive name should not cause smiles - every detail in these subtle phenomena has its own meaning; she was called this name in early childhood and now she appropriated it in somnambulism. Such facts are not uncommon: we just saw a somnambulist Deleuze, who called herself “Little One.” Dr. Gibert told me that a thirty-year-old woman whom he put to sleep for the first time spoke of herself as little Lily. How can we explain such a return to childhood? Is it not because hysterics, in reality belonging to the visual type, in deep somnambulism regain the muscular sense that they perhaps used most in childhood? However, we will return to this return of somnambulists to a childish state, since it is one of the main factors of suggestion. Lucy, who remained herself in the first somnambulism, completely changed in the second; the change must have been too great, because she no longer recognized herself; she called herself Andriene (Lucy 3) - a name that she appropriated it to herself under certain circumstances, which will be discussed below.
Finally, it may happen that any change in state will be so great that it will give the impression of a split personality. Leonia, at the very first somnambulism we described, abandons her ordinary name and takes the name Leontina, to which her first hypnotists taught her. “This woman is not me at all,” she says, “she is too stupid, this one is different, the real one”; She was also taught this - she considers herself as real as the “other”. This new person, Leonia 2, ascribes to herself all the sensations and actions that she recognized in somnambulism; on the contrary, she attributes to Leonia 1, i.e. Leonia in a normal state, all the mental processes that she is aware of in reality. At first I was struck by one exception to this rule and thought that there was something arbitrary in this distribution of memories. Leonia has a husband and children; Leonia 2 (in somnambulism) attributes only children to herself, saying that another has a husband. This choice was difficult to explain, especially since it was not permanent. I eventually learned that the previous magnetizers had caused her to become somnambulistic during her first birth and that the second condition appeared spontaneously during subsequent births. Leonia 2 was right in attributing to herself
children, since it was she who gave birth to them; Thus, the rule was not violated, and the first somnambulism caused her to have a split personality.
But it is curious that this is not observed during the second somnambulism. When, after lethargy and catalepsy, she falls into a state of second somnambulism, she no longer resembles herself. Instead of an active child, she becomes serious and important: she speaks slowly and moves little. Now she distinguishes herself from Leonia 1 in a normal state: “This is a rather stupid woman,” she says, “this is not me at all.” In the same way, she distinguishes herself from Leonia 2: “How can you think that I look like this crazy woman - fortunately, this is not the case at all.” This division of one being into three alternating and despising persons is a very curious fact, and gives rise to a whole series of incidents on which I cannot dwell for fear of prolonging my work. Leonia falls asleep in the carriage railway and falls into state 2; After a while, Leonia 2 wants to get out of the carriage behind this poor Leonia 1, “who, according to her, remained at the previous station and who needs to be warned.” If I show Leonia 2 a portrait of Leonia 1, she says: "why did she take my hat? Someone dresses the same as me." When she arrives in Le Havre, I have to greet in turn all three persons contained in her, who in a funny way manifest successively the same feeling. It is useless to dwell on these anecdotes, since anyone can predict what strange situations may arise from such a division of personality.
But, they will tell us, this second state is not real existence, since it does not last and after a while it is always necessary to wake up these persons. Of course, some persons cannot remain indefinitely in certain somnambulistic states. Leonia in Leonia State 2 cannot eat and therefore will only be able to remain in this state for at most one day; but this is not at all because the second state cannot last, but because the body then begins to cool greatly. Of course, if you leave a subject in somnambulism motionless, unable to move or eat, then he will soon lose too much heat. But if, on the contrary, we take the complete somnambulistic state, which is a real second existence, analogous to the normal life of some
another person, then there is no basis for asserting that the subject cannot remain in it for a very long time.
Not to mention a natural second existence, which can last quite a long time, as, for example, in Felida, the authors often mentioned artificial somnambulisms that lasted more or less a long time. The famous abbot of Faria claimed that some of his subjects remained in somnambulism for years and, on awakening, forgot everything that happened during this long period. One hypnotist put two young girls to sleep in the winter and woke them up only a few months later in the middle of spring: they were very amazed to see the trees in leaves and in bloom, since they remembered that before they were put to sleep the trees were covered with snow. “Often,” says one author, “I left my somnambulists lulled to sleep, but with their eyes open throughout the day, and walked with them in order to make observations on them without arousing the curiosity of strangers. I happened to prolong the somnambulism of a woman in my service for two weeks. girls; at the same time, she continued to work, as if she were in her usual state... Upon awakening, she felt like a stranger in the house, completely not remembering what happened." These stories cannot be considered fictional, because these facts are easy to verify: I myself, without any difficulty, kept Rosa in somnambulism for 4.5 days, and all this time she felt very well, slept and ate much better than in her normal state. This state was further prolonged by J. Janet, who studied the interesting period in somnambulists when the hysterical woman’s sensitivity is restored and she becomes like a completely healthy person.
Is it possible to leave these subjects in somnambulism indefinitely? In this way it would be easy to completely cure hysteria; Unfortunately, this seems very difficult to me. The somnambulistic state seems to me - at least to my subjects - very tiresome and quickly exhausts them. Some, like Leonia and Lucy, often feel the need to sleep for a few minutes after somnambulism in order to get some rest; in general, hysterics remain in this state only thanks to renewable
from time to time excitations in the form of passes, electric current, etc. It is quite possible that hysterics with prolonged somnambulism would gradually regain their defects and normal anesthesia, and they would again return to their normal state, forgetting everything that happened during their fuller existence. However, my observations on this matter are completely insufficient, and I cannot draw definitive conclusions.
One more question remains about these new forms of mental life: are they below or above the normal state? Is this transition from one state to another a regression or progress for the subject? Many authors have spoken in favor of the latter opinion. “This latter, that is, forgetting upon awakening, makes us think that somnambulism is a more perfect state.” Myers, in his interesting research on automatic writing, asks himself the question: could somnambulism sometimes be a state of evolution, rather than mental regression? It is impossible to give a general answer to this due to the numerous variations of somnambulism. There is an infinite number of forms of psychic life, beginning with that which contains only one isolated rudimentary psychic element without judgment and even without consciousness of personality, and ascending to the consciousness of the higher monad of which Leibniz speaks and which represents in an abbreviated form the whole world. We have seen that through hypnosis it is possible to bring a subject into the first state, which we called catalepsy - in other words, he can be reduced to the lowest level of consciousness.
Is it possible to bring such subjects closer to the highest form of consciousness? This depends, I think, on the properties of their consciousness in a normal state: when you are dealing with hysterics, in whom consciousness, sensation and memory are weakened and below normal, then the slightest stimulation of the nervous system (passes and electric current are very strong stimulants) returns to them the lost abilities and lead them to a higher form of existence. It is clear that Lucy 3, Rose 4 or Leonia 3 are at a much higher level of consciousness than Lucy 1, Rose 1, Leonia 1. But here we are talking about hysterical women, and the highest form of existence communicated to them is simply normal life, which
they would have to use it constantly if they were not sick. This state, being higher than normal, differs so little from it that further in these women it is similar to the state when they were more or less healthy. Is it possible to go higher in this direction? Is it possible to transcend these somnambulistic states or to impart another, higher form to healthy people for whom this form of existence is natural? Almost all previous magnetizers admitted such a possibility, who studied new feelings and supernatural abilities on their subjects. Myers was also interested in this when he spoke about adapting our new personality to new needs. But we cannot enter into consideration of this issue, which is not directly related to the task we have set.
Conclusion
Studying isolated mental phenomena in the previous chapter, we saw that on the one hand, movements of the limbs and sensations, and on the other, facial expressions, gestures and emotions form syntheses, the elements of which are connected and inseparable. Once one element of sensation or emotion is given, other elements arise involuntarily and form a group that tends to develop and persist as long as possible. In this chapter we studied a more complex group of mental elements formed from sensations and memories, and established a similar law for it. When a feeling or at least a certain type of sensitivity disappears, the images and memories associated with this feeling also disappear. When a feeling is preserved, the corresponding images and memories of them remain intact. “No feeling, no ideas,” says Lamettrie in his “Homme-ma-chine,” “the less feeling, the fewer ideas.” We will say: without feelings there are no memories; The fewer feelings, the fewer memories. The surviving memories are connected and grouped around one main sensation in which they find their expression and thanks to which they float to the surface of consciousness; if they are numerous, they form a whole system, all parts of which depend on each other and are connected by one common memory.
A person who was mentally perfectly healthy could have only one memory; since in this case all mental phenomena would always be associated with the same constantly present images, then such a subject could easily evoke them at any given moment. But no person is so perfect: a thousand conditions - affective states, sleep, intoxication or illness - change or destroy some images, revive others and change the entire direction of consciousness. In this way, secondary groups are formed around known images that are unusual for a given psyche; these new images may sometimes not appear at all; but if they periodically appear spontaneously or are caused artificially, then they entail all the memories associated with them and in this way different forms of memory replace each other.
A group of related images can give rise to a special judgment in which the unity of the images is recognized and stated; then the successive forms of memory determine the emergence of various changing personalities. Somnambulism is precisely such a form of existence in which special memory and personality are manifested: the essential feature of somnambulism is that it is abnormal mental state, which does not extend to the entire life of the individual and is replaced by other states and forms of memory that do not know about each other. Being often imperfect and rudimentary, somnambulism can sometimes form new uniform existence, more perfect than the ordinary state of the individual. To do this, it is necessary that circumstances favor the automatic development of the mental elements that form the second state and make their grouping more coherent and stable. Then the systems of mental elements, like each element separately, seem to live their own life, and this life of individual mental systems creates different personalities and different forms of somnambulism.
