Stages and structure of scientific research. Stages of scientific research: characteristics of the main activities Where scientific research begins
1) from analysis of the results;
2) from the statement of the problem and the choice of topic;
3) from conducting the experiment;
4) all answers are correct.
What is the main function of science?
1) in confirming phenomena and processes;
2) in search of patterns;
3) in developing objective knowledge about reality;
4) all answers are correct.
27. The subject of the study is...
1) part of matter that is included in cognitive activity;
2) knowledge of any properties of matter or processes;
3) method of cognition;
4) research tool.
28. Science is based on...
1) logic;
2) intuition;
3) education;
4) facts.
29. A hypothesis is...
1) a statement about the existence of a phenomenon, the truth of which is proven deductively;
2) a statement about the existence of a phenomenon, the falsity of which is proven deductively;
3) a statement about the existence of a phenomenon, the truth or falsity of which is verified experimentally;
4) an assumption about the cause or consequence of a phenomenon.
What determines the duration of the experiment?
1) on the objectives of the study;
2) the complexity of the research methodology;
3) the complexity of processing the research results;
4) on the novelty of the research.
Which of the following experiments is characterized by strict standardization of methods and environmental conditions?
1) natural;
2) laboratory;
3) model;
4) free;
Which of the following experiments is characterized by such minor changes in normal conditions that they may not be noticed by those being studied?
1) natural;
2) laboratory;
3) model;
4) staged.
What is the difference between pedagogical observation and everyday observation?
1) systematic and specific;
2) the presence of specific methods for recording facts;
3) subsequent verification of observation results;
4) all of the above.
What type of survey corresponds to obtaining information through written responses to a system of standardized questions?
1) survey;
2) interview;
3) conversation;
4) consultation.
36. When preparing a scientific paper, you need to focus on...
1) own intuition;
2) teacher requirements;
4) advice from classmates.
37. Principles of construction, forms and methods of research activities:
1) methodology of science;
2) methodological reflection;
3) methodological culture;
4) all options are correct.
38. The logic of the study includes:
1) staging stage;
2) research stage;
3) about the development and implementation stage;
4) all options are correct.
39. A research method that involves organizing a research situation and allows you to control it:
1) observation;
2) experiment;
3) survey;
4) all options are correct.
40. A type of question in a questionnaire or interview that contains answer options:
1) projective;
2) open;
3) alternative;
4) closed.
41. Type of observation, which assumes that the researcher is a participant in the observed process:
1) indirect;
2) hidden;
3) included;
4) all options are correct.
42. Method of written survey of respondents:
1) testing;
2) survey;
3) modeling;
4) all options are incorrect.
43. Exact excerpt from some text:
1) review;
2) quote;
3) abstract;
4) all options are correct.
44. Criteria for evaluating an educational essay:
1) correspondence of the content to the topic of the abstract;
2) depth of material processing;
3) correctness and completeness of the use of sources;
4) all options are correct.
45. Course work solves the following problems:
1) a summary of the findings;
2) independent analysis of concepts on the problem being studied;
3) determining the relevance, object and subject of research;
4) all options are correct.
46. Determine which scale the given measurement belongs to: groups (teams of athletes) 1 – football players; 2 – gymnasts; 3 – basketball players; 4 – swimmers.
1) scale of names;
2) order scale;
3) interval scale;
4) relationship scale.
47. Determine which scale the given measurement belongs to: the number of questions in the questionnaire as a measure of the complexity of the survey.
1) scale of names;
2) order scale;
3) interval scale;
4) relationship scale.
48. Determine which scale the given measurement belongs to: time to solve a learning problem.
1) scale of names;
2) order scale;
3) interval scale;
Where does political science research begin? The first step in political science research is to select a research problem. Having determined the nature of the problems with which we wish to deal and the nature of the results we wish to achieve, it is then necessary to formulate the research problem more specifically.
Once a research topic of interest has been identified, it is necessary to carefully analyze the various elements, or components, of that topic and identify those that may be relevant to our research. To establish the main factors of behavior, it is necessary to use the ability to observe and draw conclusions, as well as analyze previously conducted studies on similar topics, both our own and those carried out by other researchers.
Once you have one or more research problems and a theory to guide your search for answers, you can move on to the next step—operationalization. Operationalization refers to the transformation, or reformulation, of relatively abstract theoretical concepts into concrete concepts. Operationalization involves a transition from the conceptual level (thinking about a problem) to the operational level (developing ways to solve it). During this process, the concepts used are narrowed and shades of meaning disappear, reasoning becomes more precise and the ability to present the results obtained clearly and unambiguously increases significantly.
Having chosen a problem and formulated the research objective, you need to develop a research strategy. First, you should choose a method or combination of methods that would allow you to ask the specific questions you are interested in, and this must be done in accordance with the operationalization procedure. The acceptability of a particular research method is largely determined by what particular problem we have undertaken to study. Secondly, in the process of research there is a need to turn to reality and determine the possibility of implementing the chosen method or technique in the specific conditions with which one has to deal.
So, the research problem is defined. Now it's time to build theories. Building a theory helps determine whether the understanding of a problem is correct. This is why theory creation is the first step of the research process. An inappropriate theory can lead to the fact that the work expended will be useless for solving the problem of interest.
Regardless of whether or not we have a theory at the beginning, the same facts can be obtained in the course of research. However, only facts that will be connected with each other through theory will help to advance in understanding the problem. Theories help explain why facts should be related in the way they do and provide a way to interpret facts within a certain framework and establish connections between them.
Theory should not be treated as something complete. It should be viewed as a tool that requires revision from time to time and continuous improvement. Theory testing is central to the research process. Testing a theory requires moving from what was observed when the theory was developed to what was not observed in order to determine whether the theory is a true reflection of reality. Suppose, for example, that we want to construct a theory to explain voting behavior. It is known from previous studies on this topic that higher education is positively associated with participation in elections. The longer a person has studied, the higher the likelihood of such participation. Based on this observation, we include in our theory the proposition that higher levels of education lead to a higher likelihood of voting. We know that in Russia these factors are interconnected, but what is the situation in other countries?
Based on the assumption that education increases the likelihood of voting, we can conclude that a person with a higher education is more likely to vote than someone with only a high school education.
This assumption can be tested by comparing Russian data with data from other countries. If data from different countries are consistent with the assumption made, then we can conclude that the theory adequately reflects people's behavior. However, you can gain more or less confidence in the applicability of a theory by comparing its assumptions with your observations. It is more correct to say that we gain confidence in the usefulness of a theory as observations accumulate that are consistent with the expectations, or hypotheses, derived from it. A hypothesis is a declarative assumption about how things really are. It tells us what we expect to see as a result of properly organized observations of events occurring in the real world.
Thus, scientific research is a method of testing theories and hypotheses by applying certain rules of analysis to data obtained as a result of observations and interpretations of these observations under strictly specified conditions. Research begins with theory and ends, as a rule, with the creation of a theory, but of a higher scientific level, that arose during the research process.
Before any serious research is undertaken, a program should be drawn up that not only describes exactly what should be done and how, but also explains why each given step should be taken and why it should be done in one way and not another. Some research projects are exploratory. They are intended to become more familiar with the phenomena to be investigated, to provide an opportunity to more accurately formulate problems and, perhaps, to build hypotheses. Such studies can play an important role when new phenomena are being studied or phenomena that have not been previously studied.
Some projects involve descriptive research. The latter are intended to provide an accurate understanding of certain phenomena, allowing for a better formulation of problems and hypotheses. Research that tests hypotheses can be called explanatory research. Such research is carried out when enough is already known about the phenomenon to begin to look for an explanation of why the phenomenon is the way it is.
Regardless of the specific purpose of the study, the research program should include the following basic elements. 1)
statement of the purpose of the study; 2)
statement of the hypothesis to be tested (if any); 3)
detailed description of the organization and conduct of observations; 4)
summarizing discussion of future analysis of the collected data.
Objects of research for various practical purposes can be just as numerous. This raises the question: what is a representative sample? A representative sample is one in which all the main features of the population from which the sample is drawn are presented in approximately the same proportion or with the same frequency with which a given feature appears in this population. When forming a sample, it is necessary to be very careful that not only to select a sufficient number of objects from a given population, but also to take a group that seems to be truly representative in terms of the distribution of characteristics within the given population. Whether the subject of research is events, political statements, news collections, political organizations, public opinion, or any other issues of interest, it is important to understand the determining role of the selection process and its impact on the significance and usefulness of the study.
More on the topic PREPARATION OF RESEARCH:
- 4. PREPARATION OF MATERIALS FOR FORENSIC STUDY OF WRITING
- Appendix 8 MATERIAL FOR PREPARING FOR A PUBLIC SPEECH. “EDUCATION IN JAPAN: FEATURES OF THE JAPANESE PERSONNEL TRAINING SYSTEM” (Travin V.V., Dyatlov V.A.)
- A. A. Sudnik GENDER FACTOR IN POLITICAL LEADERSHIP (RESULTS OF SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH) General characteristics of the study
Topic 2. How to conduct sociological research
Sociology cannot exist without obtaining empirical information of a wide variety of types - about the opinions of voters, the leisure time of schoolchildren, the president's rating, the family budget, the number of unemployed, the birth rate. First of all, the researcher uses official statistics published in magazines, bulletins, and reports. He gets the missing information through a sociological survey, where the subjective opinions of people are clarified (in the survey they are called respondents). The answers are mathematically averaged, the summarized data is presented in the form of statistical tables, and patterns are derived and explained. The final result is the construction of a scientific theory that allows us to predict future phenomena and develop practical recommendations.
Research program
Sociological research does not begin with drawing up a questionnaire, as is commonly thought, but with elaborating the problem, putting forward goals and hypotheses, and building a theoretical model. Only then does the sociologist proceed to developing tools (most often this is actually a questionnaire), then to collecting primary data and processing them. And at the final stage - theoretical analysis again, because the data must be correctly, that is, in accordance with the put forward theory, interpreted and explained. Only after this do practical recommendations follow.
Today, empirical research refers to the collection of primary data, carried out according to a specific program and using the rules of scientific inference, putting representative information at the disposal of the scientist. The technology (methodology and methods) of data collection answers the question “how the data was obtained,” and the data themselves represent the result of the research search and answer the question “what was obtained in the study.” The strategy of empirical research is determined by the research program, which includes a theoretical model of the subject of research, an empirical scheme of the object of research, methods and techniques for obtaining data, analysis and interpretation of data, but does not include a scientific report that describes the results.
All stages of a sociologist’s work are reflected in his main document - the program of sociological research.
The program refers to a type of strategic document of scientific research, the purpose of which is to present a general scheme or plan for a future event, to outline the concept of the entire study. It contains a theoretical justification for methodological approaches and methodological techniques for studying a specific phenomenon or process.
The basis of sociological research, its quintessence is the research program. It contains all the wisdom of a scientist, expresses everything that he is capable of - his qualifications in choosing a problem, subject and object of research, constructing a sample and tools, organizing the field stage, analyzing and interpreting the collected data.
It is impossible to say for sure whether the research begins with the program or the research ends with it. The program is both the beginning of one and the completion of another stage of work. It is always replenished, clarified, and improved. It is the know-how of each individual scientist. If you want, a way to make money. And the better, more original it is composed, the more reliable it is in operation, the more money it brings to its creator. This is why good sociology programs are worth their weight in gold.
The program of sociological research includes a detailed, clear and complete presentation of the following key points: methodological part - formulation and justification of the problem, indication of the goal, definition of the object and subject of the study, logical analysis of basic concepts, formulation of hypotheses and research objectives; methodological part - definition of the population being surveyed, characteristics of the methods used for collecting primary sociological information, the logical structure of the tools for collecting this information, logical schemes for its processing on a computer.
The following main stages of drawing up a research program are distinguished:
Problem formulation.
Definition of the purpose, objectives, object and subject of research.
Logical analysis of basic concepts.
Proposing hypotheses.
Definition of the sample population.
Compilation of tools.
Field survey.
Processing and interpretation of the obtained data.
Preparation of a scientific report.
Problem formulation. Conducting research and designing a program begins with the correct formulation of the problem. In research, a social problem appears as a kind of state of “knowing about ignorance” of certain aspects (quantitative and qualitative characteristics) of a phenomenon or process. A social problem is a contradictory situation existing in reality itself, in the life around us, of a mass nature and affecting the interests of large social groups or social institutions. This may be ignorance of the reasons for the increase in youth crime, an increase in unemployment or a decrease in the standard of living of the population, a decrease in demand for domestic household appliances, a deterioration in the political rating of the head of state, an excess of emigration over immigration, etc.
When formulating a research problem, the sociologist strives to accurately express the problem situation (and the real contradiction that defines it) and at the same time not to give overly broad and abstract definitions. Most often, the initial problem, which is usually abstract, constantly narrows as the research progresses and by the time it enters the “field” it acquires a clear, complete form. It is advisable to return to the formulation of the problem several times. If the problem is not “trimmed down” to the required dimensions, there is always the danger that the sociologist will look for an answer to a solution to one rather than many problems, and therefore will not properly solve any one.
It is inappropriate to undertake the study of several problems within the framework of one study, since this complicates the tools and makes them unnecessarily cumbersome, which in turn reduces, firstly, the quality of the collected information, and secondly, the efficiency of the research (which leads to aging of sociological data).
Definition of the purpose, objectives, object and subject of research. The research objectives can be divided into main and additional ones. The main ones involve searching for an answer to its central question: what are the ways and means of solving the problem under study? Additional tasks help to clarify the circumstances, factors, and causes that accompany the main research problem.
The object of sociological research in the broad sense is the carrier of a particular social problem, in the narrow sense - people or objects that can provide the sociologist with the necessary information. Most often, the target is a social group - students, workers, single mothers, teenagers, etc. If, for example, the causes of academic failure at a university are studied, then the object of study is equally students and teachers.
The subject of research includes those aspects and properties of the object that most fully express the problem under study (the contradiction hidden in it) and are subject to study. The reasons for failure at university are the subject of research. It represents a concentrated expression of the relationship between a social problem and the object of study.
Logical analysis of basic concepts. This section of the program provides for such methodological procedures, without which it is impossible to implement a unified research concept in the tools, and therefore to realize its goal and verify the correctness of the hypotheses put forward. Their essence lies in the logical structuring of the basic concepts that define the subject of research. Logical analysis presupposes an accurate explanation of the content and structure of the original concepts, and on this basis - an understanding of the relationship between the properties of the phenomenon being studied. Subsequently, it will help to correctly explain the results obtained. The result of such a procedure is a theoretical model of the subject of research, which we will talk about in more detail.
Proposing hypotheses. Their totality reflects the richness and possibilities of the theoretical concept and the general focus of the research. A hypothesis is a scientific assumption put forward to explain the phenomena and processes being studied, which must be confirmed or refuted. Preliminary formulation of hypotheses can predetermine the internal logic of the entire research process. Hypotheses are explicitly or implicitly expressed assumptions about the nature and causes of the problem being studied.
For example, if, in the course of analyzing the reasons for poor performance at a university, assumptions are made about 1) the low quality of teaching of a number of subjects, 2) the distraction of students from studying for additional income, 3) the administration’s undemandingness in academic performance and discipline, 4) miscalculations in competitive admission to the university, then These are the ones that should be checked. Hypotheses must be precise, specific, clear and relate only to the subject of the study. How the hypotheses are formulated often determines what research methods will be used. Thus, the hypothesis about the low quality of teaching requires an expert survey, and the hypothesis about the distraction of students for additional work requires a regular survey of respondents.
Definition of the sample population. It is set by the object of the study itself (for example, a survey of students, pensioners, Sberbank depositors, enterprise employees). The difference between an object and a sample population is that the second is smaller in volume and represents a smaller copy of the first. If the object of study covers tens of thousands of people, then the sample population includes hundreds. Therefore, most sociological studies are not continuous, but selective: according to strict rules, a certain number of people are selected, reflecting the socio-demographic characteristics of the structure of the object being studied. In the language of sociologists, this operation is called sampling. The research program carefully describes the sampling design, which can be further refined.
The sample design specifies the principles for selecting from the object the population of people (or other sources of information) that will subsequently be covered by the survey; the survey technique is justified; approaches to determining the reliability of the information received are indicated (it is necessary in order to verify the degree of legitimacy of the dissemination of the obtained conclusions to the entire object of study).
The methodological part of the sociological research program also includes a description of methods and techniques for collecting primary information (questionnaire survey, interviews, document analysis, observation); the logical structure of the methodological tools used, from which it is clear which characteristics and properties of the subject of research are aimed at identifying what characteristics or properties of the subject of research this or that block of questions is aimed at; order of questions in the toolkit. The toolkit itself is attached to the program as a separate document. Sometimes this includes logic diagrams for processing the collected information, showing the expected range and depth of data analysis.
When we begin to build a sociological research program, the most difficult and important task that predetermines overall success is, perhaps, the creation of a theoretical model of the subject of research (TMPI).
A theoretical model of a research subject is a set of abstract objects that describe a problem field, which falls within the scope of your theoretical interest and which within itself represents a single logical whole.
The theoretical model of the subject of research is the sociologist’s main guide in the boundless sea of empirical information. It resembles a city plan, without which the tourist wanders senselessly in the maze of streets. The theoretical model connects into a single whole a) some concepts with others, b) some facts with other facts, and finally, c) facts and concepts with each other. First of all, it includes abstract concepts that are logically linked to each other. They are then translated into a set of specific, observable features.
So, the central point in developing a research program is the creation of a theoretical model.
Typicality, probability, statistics
Sociology is called the science of socially typical phenomena.
This is the only science that knows exactly what the average person thinks and wants. Indeed, with the help of quantitative distributions of answers in a questionnaire, sociology reveals the typical opinion of a large group of people. But how does she manage to do this?
In sociology, the facts collected in an empirical study are called data. Data – primary information obtained as a result of sociological research: respondents’ answers, expert assessments, observation results, etc. Data can be defined as a set of variable values assigned to units of study - objects (people, things, institutions).
In a broad sense, the term “data” is applicable to the results of not only empirical but also theoretical research. The difference between them is as follows. An empirical sociologist uses his own data, that is, the results of a survey or observation he personally conducted.
In contrast, a theoretical sociologist uses someone else's data, that is, the results of a study conducted by someone else, published in print. Own data is called primary data, others - secondary data.
Primary data is the statistical information obtained in an empirical study, which has undergone a well-known mathematical processing and is expressed in the form of tables with the distribution of respondents’ answers.
As a rule, both represent the result of a study that has already been processed using mathematics. Processing of sociological information is the mathematical and statistical transformation of data, which makes it compact and suitable for analysis and interpretation.
Special mathematical procedures are called the drive belt of empirical research. They are based on probability theory, which determines the technology for compiling a sample and electronic data processing. Closely related to it is the procedure of empirical generalization, also called statistical inference. It is based on induction - inference from facts to some hypothesis (general statement).
Statistical inference is an inductive generalization built on the basis of mathematical processing and summation of a certain set of units of study. We surveyed 1,500 voters and found that more than 60% of older people (over 60 years old) voted for the Communists in the last elections. In this case, the statistical relationship between two variables was studied: age and voting behavior. From this we can draw a statistical conclusion: the older the respondent, the higher the likelihood that he will vote for the Communists. And vice versa.
We received the statistical conclusion after processing the questionnaires and analyzing the primary data. This is a quantitative conclusion. In contrast, the other two types of inference discussed earlier - logical and theoretical-hypothetical - are qualitative. The connection between them is as follows. When drawing up a research program, the scientist theoretically postulates (builds a theoretical hypothesis) the possibility of a connection between two variables - age and electoral behavior. Later, when he compiled questionnaires and conducted research, mathematical processing of data produces a statistical conclusion. These are two sides of the same coin, the first (age) serves as a test project, a theoretical model of a possible relationship between two variables, and the second (electoral behavior) serves as its empirical confirmation.
Statistical inference is a field of probabilistic knowledge. Probability is a numerical characteristic of the degree of possibility of the occurrence of any random event under certain certain conditions that can be repeated an unlimited number of times. It is studied in probability theory - a branch of mathematics in which given probabilities of some random events are used to find the probabilities of other events related in some way to the first. Mathematical statistics is the science of mathematical methods for systematizing and using statistical data. Based on probability theory, it allows one to estimate, in particular, the required sample size to obtain results of the required accuracy in a sample survey. One of the main tasks of probability theory is to clarify the patterns that arise from the interaction of a large number of random factors.
The tool for establishing such patterns is the law of large numbers, which states that the combined action of a large number of random factors leads, under some very general conditions, to a result that is almost independent of chance. It also serves as a tool for identifying stable properties in social phenomena and processes. The law of large numbers is used by sociologists in all statistical calculations; without it, empirical sociology is unthinkable. The law is indispensable when analyzing the percentage distribution of responses of respondents (interviewees). If a sociologist selects a sufficiently large number of observations, that is, asks many people, and each observation does not depend on each other or they all depend on some common cause (in other words, when respondents do not influence each other when filling out a questionnaire), then he identifies stable connections, mass process. The sampling procedure in sociology is based on the law of large numbers (its principle is to judge the many based on knowledge of the few).
When we find a quantitative measure, we automatically move into the world of probabilistic statements. We can say that with a confidence of 60–70%, women tend to choose a man with a higher education as a marriage partner. Here, the percentage, which replaces vague formulations such as “some,” “most,” or “part,” indicates the degree of probability of a given event occurring. Science can also make mistakes in its predictions. A person is unpredictable in his actions, even less predictable are masses of people who, when united, often behave differently than the sum of disparate individuals would behave.
All sociology, if we talk about its mathematical apparatus, is built on probabilities described in percentage distributions. We say: 72% of voters in a given district will vote for candidate M. This means that with a 72% probability of voters in the upcoming elections they will give preference to him. Let's add here a sampling error of, say, 5%, and we can say that voters will vote for M with a probability of 72±5%.
The degree of probability indicates, firstly, the limited capabilities of science itself, secondly, the unpredictability, variability or changeability of the behavior of the object of study, and thirdly, the high culture of scientific research, which expresses itself by the requirement to carefully judge reality.
So, the results of the sample study are subjected to mathematical processing. They then take the form of numerical expressions that describe one or more facts. Several facts, arranged in a general statistical series, may indicate the following: a) a trend, b) a pattern and, less often, c) a law.
Regularity, that is, a measure of the probability of the occurrence of an event or phenomenon or their relationship, is the subject of sociological research based on a generalization of statistical facts. The pattern indicates how, in most cases, typical representatives of a given social group behave in typical situations.
A weak type of regularity is a tendency that shows the main direction of development of events, the approximation of the real process to an objective regularity. When various trends are repeatedly superimposed, a stable connection is discovered, which is formulated as a law. Laws express what exists objectively, that is, regardless of the consciousness of people, their statistical calculations and calculations. The law captures the essence of the phenomenon, therefore they serve as the subject of theoretical sociology.
As we can see, the concepts of trend, pattern and law reflect a repeating and stable connection of social phenomena. But a tendency defines only a possibility, a kind of tendency of certain events to develop in a given direction, and a pattern is the same possibility (connection of events) that has already become a real fact and has received the status of necessity. Trends and patterns characterize mass processes that manifest themselves on average. This means that individual deviations in one direction or another cancel each other out.
Laws, as we know, are stronger and more universal, so to speak, than laws. In order for the pattern to develop into law, it is necessary to conduct a huge amount of research and prove that in all countries and in all eras, the older the age, the more actively people vote for the left. But in the United States and Western Europe, older people do not sympathize with communists at all. This means that the pattern we have discovered, firstly, is limited in time and space, and secondly, it will never become a universal law. In addition, it is impossible to theoretically prove a strict connection between older age and sympathies for communists. Therefore, in addition to universality, our law will lack another feature - necessity.
Basics of sampling
Most sociological research is not continuous, but selective: according to strict rules, a certain number of people are selected, reflecting the socio-demographic characteristics of the structure of the object being studied. This type of research is called sampling.
A sample survey is a method of systematically collecting data about people's behavior and attitudes by interviewing a specially selected group of respondents who provide information about themselves and their opinions. It is a more economical and no less reliable method, although it requires more sophisticated techniques and techniques. Its basis is a sample population, which is compiled on the basis of its reduced copy - the general population.
The general population is considered to be the entire population or that part of it that the sociologist intends to study. General population - everyone whom the sociologist is going to study using a reduced copy (sample population); a collection of those people who have one or more properties that are subject to study. Often, general populations (also called populations) are so large that interviewing each representative is extremely cumbersome and expensive. These are those to whom the sociologist’s theoretical interest is directed (theoretical in the sense that a scientist can only learn about each representative of the general population indirectly, on the basis of information about the sample population).
The general population is the set of people about whom a sociologist seeks to obtain information in his research. Depending on how broad the research topic is, the population will be equally broad. Example: a sociologist wants to know people's opinions about the situation in the country. The general population will be people who are affected by this topic and who have formed their opinion. Children, disabled people, diplomatic workers, and the mentally retarded are excluded. The rest will form the general population.
The sample population is a reduced model of the general population; those to whom the sociologist distributes questionnaires, who are called respondents, who, finally, are the object of sociological research. In other words, this is a set of people whom the sociologist interviews.
Who exactly is included in the general population is determined by the goals of the study, and who is included in the sample population is decided by mathematical methods. If a sociologist intends to look at the Afghan war through the eyes of its participants, the general population will include all Afghan soldiers, but he will have to interview a small part - the sample population. In order for the sample to accurately reflect the general population, the sociologist adheres to the rule: any Afghan soldier, regardless of place of residence, place of work, health status and other circumstances, must have the same probability of being included in the sample population.
Once the pollster has decided who he wants to survey, he determines the sampling frame. Then the question of the type of sampling is decided. They are divided into three large classes: a) continuous (censuses, referendums), b) random and c) non-random. With continuous samples, everything is more or less clear; these are not even samples, since all units from the general population are surveyed. The situation is more complicated with the last two classes. Each of them is divided into several types (types). Random ones include: 1) probabilistic, 2) systematic, 3) zoned (stratified), 4) nested. Non-random ones include: 1) “spontaneous”, 2) quota, 3) the “main array” method.
To ensure representativeness, a complete and accurate list of sampling units is required. This list forms the sampling frame. The elements intended for selection are called selection units. Sampling units can coincide with observation units, since the observation unit is considered to be the element of the general population from which information is directly collected. Typically the unit of observation is the individual. Selection from a list is best done by numbering the units and using a table of random numbers, although a quasi-random method is often used, when every nth element is taken from a simple list.
If the sampling frame includes a list of sampling units, then the sampling structure implies grouping them according to some important characteristics, for example, the distribution of individuals by profession, qualifications, gender or age. If in the general population, for example, there are 30% youth, 50% middle-aged people and 20% elderly, then the same percentage proportions of the three ages must be observed in the sample population. Classes, gender, nationality, etc. can be added to ages. For each, percentage proportions are established in the general and sample populations. The discrepancy in the structure of the two populations leads to a representativeness error. Thus, the sampling structure is the percentage proportions of the characteristics of an object, on the basis of which the sample population is compiled.
With. 1
Development of children's abilities through research activities in geography lessons
Where does research begin? With surprise... The child learns, perceives the world around him as a matter of course and beyond doubt. But one day in class he asks the question: “Why is this exactly this way and not otherwise?” From that moment on, not content with ready-made schemes and answers, he tries to find his own answer. Here it is - the beginning of the search, the beginning of the research... An unquenchable thirst for new experiences, curiosity, a constant desire to observe and experiment, an independent search for new information. And for this interesting search it is impossible to do without a teacher who creates an environment that provokes the student to have questions and a desire to find answers, that is, to display the traits of research behavior.
Teaching children to think independently, to be able to pose and solve problems, drawing on knowledge from various fields of science is one of the most important goals of education, and students’ research activities can solve it.
For 10 years, solving the problem of the strength of knowledge and increasing motivation for my subject, I have been including research activities in the learning process, by which I mean students’ activities related to solving a creative, research problem with a previously unknown solution.
The goal of my activity is to create conditions for the development of students' intellectual abilities through various forms of research activity in geography lessons. While doing this type of activity, I solve the following problems :
- increase the level of student independence and cognitive interest in the subject;
- strengthen the student’s ability to conduct research;
Create conditions for successful self-realization of the student;
Teach to use acquired knowledge and skills in practical activities and in everyday life;
Teach students to work with various sources of information;
Practice public speaking skills and defend your work in front of an audience.
I organize research activities both in class using the research method, for example, I often introduce research questions into homework, and during extracurricular hours: for example: writing a research paper. I would like to focus on research work, to the preparation and design of which I pay a lot of attention. Each research work is a creative work using a research method, the basis of which in the modern didactic system is correlated with the activity approach.
I start with the author of the work, take a closer look at the lessons, select a student who knows how to work with the text of the book, select and summarize information, draw conclusions, analyze, and show initiative. It is important to make an unmistakable choice. And to find and offer it not only to active, self-confident children who are happy to demonstrate their intellectual abilities, but also to offer it to intellectually passive children who have broad erudition, but who are fearful and inert. This is what often happens in my practice. With some support, such children achieve remarkable results. Difficulties arise at first, but when work begins, and then success comes, children develop strong motivation. And if the topics of research work are exciting and interesting, then children experience a creative surge that moves them to success. Research work is exciting, creative, but always labor-intensive.
The work on creating this product takes place in several stages.
Stage 1. Preparatory. Choosing the topic and goals of the project, getting to know the essence of the project technology.
Stage 2. Planned work. Identification of information sources; planning ways to collect and analyze information.
Stage 3. Research. Gathering information, solving intermediate problems; adjusting the plan and content of the study as the collected information is processed.
Stage 4. Analytical. Analysis of collected information. Formulation of conclusions. Presentation of the result.
Stage 5. Reporting. Rehearsals and consultations on product defense and presentation.
Stage 6. Information. Defense and presentation. Familiarization with the results obtained and the finished educational product. The finished research project is presented in the form of: report and presentation
I would like to dwell on the choice of research topic. This is the most difficult problem that I have to solve when organizing research activities. It is quite difficult to find interesting, promising topics that promise good results. The dream for every teacher is for the student to find a promising topic for his research. But it can be difficult - very often it turns out that the result has been known for a long time. You have to read a lot and follow the events happening in the world, district and city. I was lucky to have established a long-term relationship with the staff of the Museum of History and Archeology of the city, who offer a lot of interesting materials for new research on local history, and also the children are not passive to my proposal.
From the student's point of view, research is an opportunity to maximize one's creative potential. This activity allows you to express yourself individually; try your hand and apply your knowledge in creating a research paper; replenish your portfolio, publicly show the results achieved and benefit the class and school.
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Stages of scientific researchin the planning process
Scientific work is a multi-level study. A researcher needs to complete a huge number of actions and activities before the result of his scientific activity is presented to a commission or academic council. Planning a large-scale study saves you from unnecessary time-consuming steps. The applicant determines for himself the main stages of scientific research. If we are talking about a dissertation, the process of writing it can last several years.
Problems faced by a researcher when working haphazardly
Without following the stages of scientific research, many young people are faced with the problem when the amount of work ahead is so large that it is even difficult to figure out where to start on their journey. Some devote their main efforts to searching for literature and information on the topic, sit in libraries for months, but the work does not move forward, and the volume of processed information is so large that doubts arise about its further need. There is no need to delve into just the theoretical part. Others, starting their journey, focus only on the empirical part. If you immediately start setting up an experiment, you will doom your research to unreliable data. In order to avoid various kinds of chaotic and unreasonable actions, a student or graduate student should study the technology of scientific research. This will help you avoid mistakes and complete assigned tasks on time.
Structure and stages of scientific research
In general understanding, like any other important matter, writing a paper can be divided into three main stages. This is the preparatory period, production (writing the work itself), post-production (publicity of the results, defense). The stages of scientific research can be described in more detail as follows:
Detailed consideration of the stages:
The initial period involves choosing a topic and justifying its relevance. Also, at the beginning of an activity, it is worth thinking about novelty. If it is problematic to identify it or does not exist at all, then there is no point in continuing further research. The efforts made will not be successful, since there is a risk of engaging in pseudoscience, which is in no way necessary for the researcher. During this period, the author also evaluates the prospects of his future work and the material possibilities for conducting theoretical and empirical research.
The preparatory stage is very important for the researcher, since the author plans what the working conditions should be, calculates material possibilities, plans trips to conferences, publications of articles, and makes decisions on organizational issues together with the manager.
- Systematization and collection of information include familiarization with the literature on this issue, the works of researchers who have already dealt with the issue. Analytical work is underway on what has already been studied and presented earlier, and what new things can be offered in our work.
- Statement of the main question (problem), development of a hypothesis, research methodology, plan. In addition to setting a hypothesis - a scientific assumption about the possible cause that gave rise to some phenomenon under study, at this stage it is advisable to draw up a systematic rubricator plan, approve the topic, discuss with a wider circle specialists' further scientific plans and intentions. Their advice can be very valuable and contribute to the emergence of new rational ideas.
- Conducting the research involves the implementation of planned actions in accordance with the chosen methodology, prepared accordingly. This could be conducting a survey, focus group study, experiment, factor analysis, content analysis, etc.
Decor. After the material has been collected, the main postulates have been selected, confirming the truth and value of the ideas, the research has been conducted, new valuable results have been obtained, it’s time to begin formalizing them in accordance with the requirements of the Higher Attestation Commission. Basic design rules must be taken into account: use of fonts, editing, correct arrangement of structural elements, applications, etc.
The final stage. This stage is perhaps the most difficult for many who have gone all the way. The applicant has to go through a lot of organizational issues. This is a search for reviewers, opponents (for candidate and doctoral dissertations), collection of reviews, all necessary documents for a commission or specialized academic council, preparation of an abstract, organization of pre-defense and defense. These are the key stages of scientific research.
