Interpersonal relationships of children. Age characteristics of children and adults: classification and characteristics

Contacts with adults and with peers in an orphanage for preschool children are much less pronounced than for their peers from the family; they are monotonous, unemotional and are reduced to simple requests and instructions. The basis of the lag is the lack of empathy, i.e. sympathy, empathy, ability and need to share your feelings and experiences with another person.

Listed the peculiarities of communication deprive children, firstly, of the experience of their need and value, which is important for psychological well-being, and self-confidence, which underlie the formation of a full-fledged personality; and secondly, experiencing the value of another person, deep attachment to people.

School age. When studying the psychological readiness of pupils orphanage to schooling, it was found that in only one indicator are pupils ahead of family children - in terms of the expression of the desire to accept and fulfill

teacher's assignment. This seems to indicate their sufficient motivational readiness for schooling. However, as the analysis showed, in a boarding school this desire reflects the child’s reorganized ability to treat an adult as a teacher and carry out his task as an educational one, namely, dissatisfaction with the need to communicate with an adult, expressed in the desire at any cost to evoke his positive assessment, attention to to yourself.

Children at an orphanage are less successful in resolving conflicts in communication with adults and peers than students at a regular school. What is striking is the aggressiveness, the desire to blame others, the inability and unwillingness to admit one’s guilt, i.e., essentially the dominance of defensive forms of behavior in conflict situations and the inability to constructively resolve the conflict.

In the lower grades, students literally “stick” to every minimally friendly adult, are ready to fulfill his any request, and do everything possible to attract attention. Not so directly, but this is very clearly manifested in adolescence. Even the most superficial observation suggests dissatisfaction with the need for communication with adults in these children, which leads to certain deviations V behavior.

This is confirmed by the results of programmed observation conducted by R. Burns using the Stott Map. The Stott card, filled out by teachers and educators who know the child well, allows, based on the description and assessment of numerous “segments of behavior,” to determine the degree of maladaptation of the child and to identify those symptom complexes that dominate the overall picture of maladjustment.

For junior schoolchildren, brought up in an orphanage, two symptom complexes act as leading ones - “anxiety towards adults” and “hostility towards adults”.

In adolescence, the peculiarities of the mental development of children in orphanages and boarding schools manifest themselves primarily in the system of their relationships with people around them, which are associated with stable and certain personality traits of such children. Thus, by the age of 10-11, adolescents establish an attitude towards adults and peers, based on their practical usefulness for the child, form “the ability not to go deep into attachments”, superficial feelings, moral dependency (the habit of living according to orders), complications in the formation of self-awareness ( experiencing one’s inferiority) and much more. When such children communicate with others, they throw

I see importunity and an insatiable need for love and attention. The manifestation of feelings is characterized, on the one hand, by poverty, and on the other, by acute affective decoration. These children are characterized by explosions of emotions - violent joy, anger and the absence of deep, lasting feelings. They have practically no higher feelings associated with a deep experience of art and moral conflicts. It should also be noted that they are emotionally very vulnerable; even a minor remark can cause an acute emotional reaction, not to mention situations that really require emotional stress and inner fortitude. Psychologists in such cases talk about low frustration tolerance.

At the same time, the presence of an acute need for the attention and benevolence of an adult, which is observed among the pupils of an orphanage, indicates that they are open to an adult, willingly make any contact with him, and eagerly await his approval and participation. Pupils' openness and responsiveness to any appeal from an adult can become the key to the effectiveness of psychological and pedagogical influences. By showing attention and kindness to the child, an adult can satisfy this urgent need. However, it should be remembered that the need for the attention and kindness of an adult should not remain the child’s only communicative need. On its basis, it is necessary to form more complex needs for cooperation, respect, empathy and mutual understanding, all of which develop in the joint activities of a child and an adult, in the process of their cognitive and personal conversations. Thus, the need for attention and goodwill should become the basis on which psychological and pedagogical work with children growing up outside the family is built.

The interpersonal communication of orphanage pupils with each other is also very different from the communication of children raised in a family. Conflict with other children most often causes extrapunitive, blaming reactions, and these are mainly reactions of the self-defensive type “you’re a fool.” However, if in orphans such reactions absolutely predominate, and all others are literally isolated, then in home children, firstly, there are much fewer of them than in an orphanage, and secondly, almost in such same degree, intrapunitive reactions of the type of fixation on need satisfaction are presented. But it has been noted that neither in the family nor in the orphanage, in the event of conflicts with other children, intrapunitive reactions of self-defense are almost completely absent.

shield type “forgive me, please, I won’t do this again.”

One cannot lose sight of the fact that children spontaneously develop an orphanage “we.” This is a special psychological formation, they divide the whole world into “us” and “strangers”. They have a special normative attitude toward all “strangers” and toward “their own” orphanages, which most often does not correspond to social norms.

It can also be noted that full-fledged, emotionally “rich” contacts are not formed among orphanage pupils when it comes to their siblings. Observations of pupils who have not had experience communicating with older brothers and sisters show that children do not have a family attachment to them, and in the process of communication their relationships are based on a lower level (they have nothing to do with each other, they do not show any kindness to each other, no care, no interest).

480 rub. | 150 UAH | $7.5 ", MOUSEOFF, FGCOLOR, "#FFFFCC",BGCOLOR, "#393939");" onMouseOut="return nd();"> Dissertation - 480 RUR, delivery 10 minutes, around the clock, seven days a week and holidays

Lishin Oleg Vsevolodovich. The educational impact of leading activity in the child-adult relationship system on the formation of a person’s personal orientation: dissertation... Doctor of Psychological Sciences: 19.00.07. - Moscow, 2004. - 376 p. : ill. RSL OD,

Introduction

CHAPTER I. LEADING ACTIVITIES IN THE SYSTEM OF RELATIONS “CHILD - ADULT”. 13

I. The system of “child-adult” relations as the psychological basis of personal development in the process of ontogenesis. 13

2. Leading activity as a complex semantic structure. 28

3. Formation of semantic structures of leading activity in the process of its formation. 53

CHAPTER II. DIRECTION OF PERSONALITY AS A RESULT OF THE LEADING ACTIVITY OF A GROWING PERSON IN THE SYSTEM OF RELATIONS “CHILD -

ADULT" AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF ITS DEVELOPMENT. 70

2. The role of the system of interpersonal relations in the formation of personality orientation. 115

CHAPTER III. SIGNIFICANT ADULTS AND LEADING ACTIVITIES AS

DECISIVE FACTORS IN FORMING LIFE DIRECTION

PERSONALITY POSITIONS 153

1. The connection between the interpersonal relationships of the child’s significant social environment and the developmental tendencies of his personality. 153

2. Psychological mechanisms of formation of the direction of life positions

a maturing subject. 192

CHAPTER IV. THE ROLE OF INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS OF SIGNIFICANT SOCIAL

ENVIRONMENT IN THE FORMATION OF LEADING ACTIVITIES IN ADOLESCENCE DEVELOPMENT AND FORMATION OF THE DIRECTION OF INDIVIDUALS' LIFE POSITIONS. 222

1. Psychological features of personal ontogenesis in adolescence. 222

2. Psychological mechanisms and results of the influence of significant adults on the personality of a teenager during the formation and development of leading activities. 233

3. Psychological traits and features of deviant personality development of a teenager. 267

CHAPTER V. PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PEDAGOGICAL CONDITIONS OF CONSTRUCTION

PEDAGOGICALLY ORGANIZED (LEADING) ACTIVITIES IN THE SYSTEM

RELATIONSHIPS "CHILD - ADULT" FOR THE PURPOSES OF FORMATION

PRO-SOCIAL DECENTRATED ORIENTATION IN STRUCTURES

GROWING PERSONALITY 299

1. Conditions for the development of parent-child relationships, ensuring the complete formation of pedagogically organized (leading) activities 299

2. Psychological and pedagogical principles of building constructive interpersonal relationships and full-fledged pedagogically organized (leading) activities in school and out-of-school associations. 319

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 345

CONCLUSION. 349

BIBLIOGRAPHY 351

Introduction to the work

The relevance of research due to the need to increase the attention of the pedagogical community to the psychological foundations educational process, as follows, in particular, from the tasks set in the concept of modernization of Russian education in the period until 2010. In pedagogical practice, a critical situation has developed in the field of setting goals and objectives for the education of growing citizens, ways and methods of their implementation. Most programs of educational institutions essentially lack psychologically based tasks and methods of educational influence on personal development in childhood, adolescence and young adulthood. The main attention of teachers is traditionally paid to the tasks of teaching, the solution of which is significantly hampered by the lack of support for the education of students. Despite a significant amount of research in domestic and world psychology concerning the patterns of personal development, the problem of setting a general goal of educational influence and a unified strategy for achieving it at each stage of personal ontogenesis remains the least studied. Traditionally, the functional approach, when the emphasis is on the theoretical selection of the required personality properties and the identification on this basis of certain types or areas of educational work, ignores the real psychological content of personal development, because personality is not a set of qualities, but, first of all, a system of relationships, attitudes, motives of activity, developing according to the laws of the contradictory in its unity process of socialization - individualization on the basis of the main need of a growing person - the need of growing up.

An alternative to the functional approach to the developing personality is an approach based on understanding the role of leading activity in the formation of such personal values ​​as self-determination of behavior, optimal self-esteem, communicative competence and social responsibility, characteristic of an individual with a decentralized (humanistic) orientation life position, providing

h the ability for empathy, cooperation and full self-realization of a person.

The personal approach has developed in Russian psychology on the basis laid down by S.L. Rubinstein’s idea of ​​the formation in ontogenesis of a person’s life position, its dynamic tendency, which forms the basis of a person’s relationship to living and inanimate nature, to people and their work. It was this direction that was developed in the studies of B.G. Ananyeva, A.G. Asmolova, A.A. Bodaleva, L.I. Bozovic, B.S. Bratusya, A.V. Zaporozhets, A.N. Leontyeva, M.I. Lisina, B.F. Lomova, V.N. Myasishchev, D.I. Feldshtein, D.B. Elko-nin and others. In the 50-80s of the 20th century, psychological and pedagogical studies of “personal orientation” became widespread (psychologists M.S. Neimark, V.E. Chudnovsky, teachers T.E. Konnikova, M.E. Kazakina and others), where the orientation of the individual was considered as the main indicator of the results of educational influence, and the method of collective education of I.P. Ivanov and his followers (F.Ya. Shapiro, L.G. Borisova, etc.) as the main way of educating a morally developed, creative, humanistically oriented personality.

In the 70-80s of the last century, in connection with the development of research on semantic structures in domestic psychology, it became possible to consider the problem of personality orientation in the context of the analysis of personal semantic structures, the psychological mechanisms of their formation and development, the transformation of the meanings of joint activities, the directed translation of meanings into the course of upbringing and the formation of a person’s life position - as a result of upbringing. As a result, it became possible to substantiate the system of goals and objectives of educational influence, based on the personally significant problems of the formation and development of dynamic semantic systems of the individual.

Purpose of this study - theoretical justification and development of the conceptual foundations of the educational process based on the use of the psychological mechanism of leading activity, forming at each stage of personal ontogenesis in the system of relations “child -

adult” of one or another variant of the orientation of the individual’s life position.

Object of study is the leading activity in the child-adult relationship system.

Subject of study- the educational impact of leading activity in the system of relations “child - adult” on the formation of the personal orientation of a growing person.

Research hypothesis consists in the assumption that leading activity can be considered not as a factor of influence adjacent to the system of relations “child - adult”, but as a factor included in this system that has a consciously regulated impact on the formation of personal orientation, including life positions. Research objectives

To develop a conceptual model of leading activity in the system of relationships “child - adult” as a semantic structure of the emerging personality at various stages of ontogenesis.

To isolate and reveal the specific features of the semantic content of the leading activity in the system of relations “child - adult” in order to identify the psychological mechanism of interaction between the two main positions of the child “I in society” and “I and society” during the changing stages of personal ontogenesis.

To identify the psychological patterns of the influence of leading activity on the formation of semantic structures of the personality as a determining factor in the formation of its orientation.

Define psychological conditions, in which leading activity becomes a consciously regulated factor in the influence of the system of relationships “child - adult” on the formation of personality orientation.

Describe typical psychological characteristics semantic sphere of older adolescents and youth belonging to different types of personality orientation.

Scientific novelty of the research is that it is the first to substantiate the conceptual model of leading activity as a semantic structure that is part of the system of relations “child - adult” and acts as a decisive factor in the formation of psychological prerequisites for the direction of an individual’s life positions.

For the first time, the psychological mechanism of the educational influence of significant adults from the immediate environment of a growing subject is also substantiated through their support of the semantic content of his leading activity at each stage of personal ontogenesis.

For the first time, the semantic content of the types of orientation of a person’s life positions in older adolescence and youth has been theoretically and experimentally revealed.

For the first time, a theoretically substantiated concept of pedagogically organized activity is introduced as a form of existence of leading activity. Pedagogically organized activities include a complex of different types of activities, united by a common semantic radical of the child’s leading attitude to the world at a given stage of ontogenesis.

Theoretical significance The research consists in the theoretical justification and conceptual development of the foundations of the educational process, implemented through the participation of significant adults in the implementation of leading activities in the system of child-adult relations and corresponding to the stage of personal development of a growing person. At the same time, the conceptual idea of ​​the types of leading activities as semantic structures included in the system of relations “child - adult” and actually determining the process of growing up of the subject is theoretically substantiated. The psychological result of this process is the formation of the personality’s orientation, expressed in the semantic content of its life positions, which determine the consciousness and behavior of a person.

At the same time, for the first time, the psychological and pedagogical concept of pedagogically organized activity as a complex of activities united by a common meaning that corresponds to the child’s leading attitude to the world is theoretically substantiated.

The study substantiates the special function of continuity of life positions as a condition for the implementation of the transitive role of interpersonal relationships in a number of generations.

Practical significance of the study lies in the experience of mass use of its results

in pedagogical practice, setting the goals and objectives of the educational impact of pedagogically organized activities of adolescent and youth groups on the basis of schools, lyceums, gymnasiums in Moscow, Kirov, Izhevsk, Petrozavodsk, military search associations of the Russian Federation and scout groups of Karelia;

in diagnosing the pedagogical potential of general education educational institutions and institutions additional education Moscow Department of Education;

in the practice of training students - teachers and psychologists - higher educational institutions in Moscow, Kirov, Izhevsk, Petrozavodsk;

in the practice of advanced training classes for teachers of secondary schools and additional education teachers in Moscow, Petrozavodsk, Tyumen, Tobolsk, Kyzyl, Primorsky Krai.

Implementation and testing of research results. The provisions of the dissertation research are embodied in the educational programs of psychological and pedagogical education in the conditions of university and

post-university professional training for humanistically oriented psychological and pedagogical activities within schools, institutions of additional education, public education and family were the basis for courses of lectures on educational psychology of education and the psychology of the developing personality, which are given by the author, starting in 1978, at the MOPI. N.K. Krupskaya, at the training courses for school psychologists at the Faculty of Psychology of Moscow State University, at the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute named after. V.I. Lenin, in MSSI and MTTSPPU, in Izhevsk state university. They were reflected in reports at conferences and seminars of public education workers in Moscow and the Moscow region, Udmurtia, Ka-

relia, Yamalo-Nenets National District, Far East, Tyumen region, Tuva, Tver, Kirov and Vladimir regions.

Since 2001, students in grades 10-11 at Moscow Pedagogical Gymnasium 1505 have been taught an adapted course in educational psychology.

Methodological developments based on the research data were and are used in the practice of adolescent and youth associations in Moscow, Kirov, Kolomna, Tobolsk, the North-Western Special School in Petrozavodsk, scout associations of Karelia, as well as in the practice of class teachers and school psychologists in Moscow, Moscow region, Krasnoturinsk, Klyazminsky town, Petrozavodsk, Izhevsk, in the work of the city certification service of the Moscow Department of Education.

Theoretical and methodological principles and conclusions obtained on the basis of scientific analysis and experimental work were presented at meetings of the laboratory of mental development in adolescence and youth of the Psychological Institute of the Russian Academy of Education, at seminars, scientific and practical conferences and round tables annually organized by the laboratory (from 1972 to 2004); at the Academic Council and conferences of the Psychological Institute of the Russian Academy of Education, at meetings of the Department of Developmental Psychology of the Faculty of Education of the Moscow City Psychological and Pedagogical University (2001-2004); at the Russian scientific and practical conference "Social initiatives and children's movement"(Izhevsk, 2000); at the Interregional conference "Communar methodology and pedagogy of cooperation." Communarism: its past, present and future (Arkhangelsk, 2001); at the scientific session of the Russian Academy of Education "Problems of modern childhood" (Moscow, 2001); at the Interregional scientific -practical conference "Achievements of science and practice - in educational institutions"(Glazov, 2003); at the IX symposium of the Psychological Institute of the Russian Open Society "Psychological aspects of the meaning of life, acme and happiness" (Moscow, 2003) and at the X symposium "The meaning of life and acme: 10 years of search" (Moscow, 2004); at International conference“Dependence, responsibility, trust in search of subjectivity” (Izhevsk, June 2004).

Theoretical and methodological foundations of the study appeared:

An activity approach, in the context of which the forms of assimilation of social experience by a growing personality are specified in the concept of the type of leading activity, derived from the child’s leading attitude to reality (Ananyev B.G., Bozhovich L.I., Vygotsky L.S., Dragunova T.V., Zaporozhets A.V., Leontyev A.N., Lisina M.I., Obukhova L.F., Slobodchikov V.I., Sosnovsky B.A., Feldshtein D.I., Tsukerman G.A., Elkonin D. .B. and others).

The concept of the special role of the semantic content of interpersonal communication and the underlying relationship as the main means through which the teaching and educational influence on a maturing personality is carried out by parents, teachers and peers, and during which the individual personality of the developing personality is formed. In solving these problems, the most effective from the point of view of the developing, educational and creative potential of communication is the dialogue of equal subjects based on their mutual respect and emotional contact (Ananyev B.G., Bodalev A.A., Bozhovich L.I., Bratus B. S., Garbuzov V.I., Zakharov A.I., Zaporozhets A.V., Zachepitsky R.A., Kovalev A.G., Leontiev A.A., Leontiev A.N., Leontiev D.A. , Lazursky A.F., Lisina M.I., Myasishchev V.N., Makarenko A.S., Mudrik A.V., Orlov A.B., Petrovsky A.V., Petrovsky V.A., Petrovskaya L A.A., Rubinshtein S.L., Sosnovsky B.A., Stolin V.V., Spivakovskaya A.S., Subbotsky E.V., Sukhomlinsky V.A., Umansky L.I., Feldshtein D.Y., Kharash A.U., Tsukerman G.A., Elkonin D.B.).

The position on Childhood as a special phenomenon of the social world, which represents a necessary state of the process of maturation of the younger generation and thereby preparation for the reproduction of the society of Tomorrow. The essential characteristic of Childhood should be considered special condition social development, when biological laws associated with age-related changes in the child’s body manifest their effect, being under a certain regulating and directing influence of the social principle (Asmolov A.G., Bodalev A.A., Bozhovich L.I., Zinchenko

V.P., Mamardashvili M.K., Mikhailov F.T., Polivanova K.N., Feldshtein D.I., Elkonin D.B.).

4. The concept of a person’s life position (its orientation, dynamic semantic structure, type of personality development, basic social attitude, attachment pattern), which belongs to the category of semantic structures and is formed from infancy, reaching relative completeness by the turn of early adolescence; this position, being not always conscious, nevertheless largely determines the consciousness and behavior of the individual (Abulkhanova K.A., Andreeva G.M., Bodalev A.A., Bozhovich L.I., Bratus B.C., Bowlby J., Barthelomew K., Vygotsky L.S., Egorycheva I.D., Zaporozhets A.V., Leontiev A.N., Leontiev A.A., Leontiev D.A., Myasishchev V.N. , Magomed-Eminov M.Sh., Rubinshtein S.L., Rotenberg B.C., Subbotsky E.V., Ukhtomsky A.A., Feldshtein D.I., Ernst F., Yadov V.A.).

Experimental base of the study.

In total, the study covered 14,613 subjects, including 200 preschoolers, 12,275 teenagers from Moscow, Kirov, Izhevsk, Arkhangelsk, Petrozavodsk, Yekaterinburg, Tyumen and the Tyumen region, Vladimir and Tver regions, Belarus, 202 students of the Moscow regional state university. University, Kolomna and Kirov Pedagogical Institutes, Moscow University. Lomonosov and some other universities, 312 teachers of secondary schools in Moscow and the Moscow region, Tver region, Udmurtia. The collection of material was carried out on the basis of the teenage and youth association led by the author - the pedagogical detachment "Dozor", created in 1974 in Moscow, and since 1977, which has served as an experimental site at the laboratory of mental development in adolescence and youth of the Psychological Institute of the Russian Academy of Education, on the basis of student pedagogical the association "Trumpeter" in Kirov, "Method" in Moscow, "Blade" in Kolomna, "Dolg" in Izhevsk, "Edelweiss" in Novosibirsk, the teenage association "Karavella" in Yekaterinburg and others. Data obtained by the author's graduate students were also used. A transformative experiment was conducted in longitudinal mode on the basis of the out-of-school association “Young Baumanets” of difficult teenagers in the Moscow region and on the basis

detachment of junior schoolchildren "Rainbow" of boarding school No. 72 in Moscow.

Research methods included theoretical, such as regressive analysis, dialectical logic, progressive analysis, recurrent synthesis, logical modeling. Empirical methods were used: biographical method, interviewing, conversations, participant observation, complex psychodiagnostic methods using personality questionnaires, content analysis, mathematical processing of the received materials was systematically carried out.

The research went through a number of stages. At the first stage (1974-1994), an experimental study was carried out on the processes of personality formation of children and adolescents in a situation of collective socially useful activity and outside it. The purpose of this study was to identify patterns of personality development under the influence of leading activities of different levels of formation and pedagogical communication of various contents. At the second stage (1994-1999), a theoretical and experimental study of typological options for life positions of personal development was carried out. The materials of this stage of the study formed the basis for the analysis of the characteristics of motivational-semantic relations and semantic attitudes of various life positions. At the third stage (1999-2003) theoretical basis conceptual model of personal development, leading to the formation of one or another version of the individual’s life position. In the context of the problems of developing personal self-determination in the system social relations the psychological significance of the semantic content of interpersonal relationships in the formation and development of the semantic structures of the individual was studied.

Reliability and validity of results research is supported by initial scientific and methodological principles, the use of standardized methods, empirical verification of analytical conclusions, representative samples of subjects, the use of control groups, statistical criteria for verification of experimental materials, testing of developments in various situations of pedagogically organized activities and consulting work aimed at

11 optimizing the personal development of children, adolescents, boys (girls) and adults.

Provisions for defense

1. The psychological basis of the educational process is the directed transmission of the semantic structures of the personality from older generations to the younger ones in the process of growing up through the formation and development of the semantic content of types of leading activities at various stages of personal ontogenesis.

Leading activity is a semantic structure in the system of relations “child - adult”, during the formation and development of which the possibilities of directed transmission of semantic structures of personality from older generations to younger ones are realized and the formation on this basis of the direction of life positions of the personality of maturing subjects.

Leading activity is a semantic structure, at the core of which is the dominant for communication and emotional contact with a significant Adult, sensitivity to his influence and a semantic attitude towards participation in the activity proposed by him. The second component is the socio-psychological content brought into the leading activity by the Adult, its other participants and the significant environment. The third component is the formation of elements of semantic structures developed by the subject in the process of activity and in the future forming his essential personal qualities.

In practice, leading activities are implemented as a complex different types and forms of activity that correspond in meaning to the child’s leading attitude to reality, and, thus, correspond to the personal meaning of the leading activity of the child’s developmental age. We call this complex pedagogically organized activity, regardless of how consciously it is built older generation.

The most important characteristic pedagogically organized activity is the completeness of its formation, which depends on the correspondence of the motivation of its participants to the motivational complex of the leading activity

of a given period of development and on the style of interpersonal relationships of representatives of different generations interconnected by this activity.

6. Dialogical style of communication based on open personal relationships
tion corresponds to a high (full) level of formation
joint pedagogically organized (leading) activities. Monolo
logical style of communication based on role relationships corresponds to the environment
to his (inferior) level. Indifferent, formal style in general
tion based on a distant or rejecting attitude corresponds
low level of formation of a pedagogically organized figure
ness.

7. Continuity of influence on personality of types of leading activities,
corresponding to the age stages of child development in ontogenesis, psycho
is logically ensured by the uniqueness of the functional load I replace
interacting with each other in the course of personality development of groups of leading activities: in the system
the theme “child is a social adult” and “child is a social
meth" (D.B. Elkonin). According to our observations, each of these groups
at successive stages of development alternately plays the leading role
role in the semantic sphere of the individual, while another, earlier, you
plays a providing and supporting role. Weakening one of
of these functions inevitably leads to inadequate functioning
second, which ultimately damages the holistic process of personal development.

8. According to the socio-psychological model of personal
ity, consciousness and behavior of the subject are determined by the position occupied at a given
moment in life position, which is a manifestation of specific, inherent
personality in this position of motivational-semantic relations in the semantic
personality space formed by tendencies to perceive and evaluate
Oneself and Others during social interaction.

9. A generalized characteristic of life position in the semantic context
personality’s space is its orientation, which is psychologically
derived from the semantic content of specific forms of activity
maturation of a growing person at each stage of his personal development
tia, in other words - from his leading activity, implemented in the form

pedagogically organized activities, i.e. a complex of activities under the semantic radical of the subject’s leading attitude to the world in interaction with significant adults and peers.

10. Consciously organized pedagogically appropriate joint activity of adults and children, based on the semantic content of age-appropriate types of leading activity, represents one or another system of educational influence on the formation of the child’s personality. The expediency and effectiveness of this influence is determined by the nature of the relationships connecting older and younger participants, the way the activity itself is organized and the correspondence of its semantic content to the personal meaning of the maturing subject at this stage of his development.

Dissertation structure includes an introduction, five chapters, conclusions, a conclusion, and a bibliography. The text material is illustrated with tables, diagrams, graphs, diagrams, drawings.

The system of “child-adult” relations as a psychological basis of personal development in the process of ontogenesis

Discussing the problem of personal development, A.G. Asmolov expressed a fair position that although joint activity in a specific social system determines the development of the personality, however, this personality, becoming more and more individualized in the process of ontogenesis, itself chooses the activity, and sometimes the lifestyle that determines its development (Asmolov, 1996, p. 470). Fundamentally agreeing with this judgment, we consider it necessary to take into account that it was preceded by the important thought of A.N. Leontiev that “personality is a product of the development of connections with the outside world. It is precisely these connections that, by their very nature, are social, that is, which exist only among a person living in society and cannot exist otherwise. In this sense,” writes A.N. Leontiev, “I explained the meaning of the position that the essence of the human personality is the totality of human relationships. It is in the movement, the development of these relationships that the development of personality occurs” (Leontyev A.N., 2000, p. 501). Thus, we have to admit that the independence of the individual in choosing his own path of development is relative and determined primarily by the system of social relations in which he is included during ontogenesis. In his report of the seventies, A.N. Leontiev definitely speaks about the study of a person’s personality as “a study of his place, position in the system, which is a system of social connections, communications that are open to him; this is a study of what, for what and how he uses a person is innate to him and acquired by him" (Leontyev A.N., 1983 A, p. 385). By this time A.N. Leontiev saw his main task as exploring “the process of generation and transformation of a person’s personality in his activities taking place in specific social conditions” (Leontiev A.N., 1975, p. 173). The very idea of ​​social determination of personality development through the process of activity and communication was noted by P.A. Florensky (1990, p. 419) and A.A. Ukhtomsky (1990). However, it was A.N. Leontiev who was the first to express the idea that, although the child’s practical activity is controlled by the object, it is joint activity with an adult that reveals to the child the essence and functions of the object. Action, as ALLeontyev puts it, crystallizes in the structure of activity. But then there is a crystallization of information about the objective world in an image, the carrier of which becomes language. Thanks to language, a system of theoretical activity is formed, intertwined with practical activity. A two-stage theoretical activity arises - preparation for action and the action itself. The emergence of an internal plan of activity, as noted by D. B. Elkonin, is associated with the compatibility of actions, since an objective action exists, having arisen, as a unit of social interaction, and a sign or image is a tool for including the activity of one person in the activity of another (Leontyev A.A., 2001, p. 223).

Considering the process of internalization as the transfer of activity from the external to the internal plane, we evaluate it as the assimilation of not only individually developed strategies for action with objects, but also strategies for joint activity with other people (Lomov B.F., 1984).

As noted by D.B. Elkonin, in childhood development there are, on the one hand, periods during which the primary assimilation of tasks, motives and norms of relationships between people occurs (the “child - social adult” system) and on this basis the development of the motivational-need sphere, and on the other sides - periods during which the primary development of socially developed ways of acting with objects occurs (in the “child - social object” system) and on this basis - the formation of the intellectual and cognitive powers of children, their operational and technical capabilities. Transitions from one period to another and from one phase to another within a period deserve, in his opinion, special attention from psychologists (D.B. Elkonin, 1995).

From this point of view, special importance should be attached to the regulatory function of the leading activity of the first group (“child - social adult”), to which we focus in this study.

According to the concept of D.B. Elkonin, it is this system that is the source of personality development, while the “child is a social object” system is the source of development of the cognitive sphere. At the same time, the human and objective worlds are considered in unity and inseparability, since each action represents a unity of affect and intellect, where affect is an orientation towards another, this is social meaning, and intellect is an orientation towards the real objective conditions of the action. According to D.B. Elkonin, a child’s actions are determined not by a thing, but by its meaning. The internal plan of action is generated by transferring to another a method of action and attracting him to joint actions. Thus, the differentiation of external and internal activities is, according to D.B. Elkoni-well, socialization, and an internal plan of action is possible only in the context of coordinating cooperation with another person in the presence of a common goal.

class2 DIRECTION OF PERSONALITY AS A RESULT OF THE LEADING ACTIVITY OF A GROWING PERSON IN THE SYSTEM OF RELATIONS “CHILD -

ADULT" AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF ITS DEVELOPMENT. class2

Personality orientation as a stable system of its social relations

Referring to V. Stern (1921), who first used the concept of directionality, V.N. Myasishchev expressed doubt that this concept, which characterizes the dominance of a certain attitude, is applicable to the individual, since the individual is multilaterally selective, dynamic and in his behavior in most cases is determined by external factors (Myasishchev, 1995, p. 348). True, a little higher, in the same work, he writes that “... a person’s attitude is not a part of the personality, but the potential of its mental reaction in connection with any object, process or fact of reality. The attitude is holistic, just like the personality itself. /.../ It is clear that a personality is characterized not by knowledge, skills and abilities, but, as mentioned above, by relationships (ibid., pp. 346-347). Subsequently, V.N. Myasishchev speaks in this regard that human relationships are diverse, and therefore they can reveal the diversity of the human personality. Many Soviet authors used the concept of the position of the individual, which was first proposed in this sense by A. Adler (1912). The position of the individual means, in essence, the integration of the selective relations of a person in what -or an important issue for him (ibid., p. 438). Thus, already in the initial period of use, the concept of personality orientation as a stable dominant system of motives was adjacent and partly competed with the concept of personality position. V.N. Myasishchev, as already mentioned, with some caution regarding the concept of personality orientation, nevertheless, it concerns the essential problem of the mental typology of personality. “The disadvantage of clinical-psychological typology,” he writes, “characterizing predominantly borderline forms of pathological development, ... is the lack of sociogenesis in taking into account the main personality traits. The disadvantage of socio-pedagogical typologies (A.F. Lazursky, E. Sprenger) is abstractness. In these works, the personal moment is presented rather as an ideological category... In our earlier works, we did not distinguish with sufficient clarity the concepts of personality and character, but emphasized the importance of the poles of collectivism and individualism for personological typology. This typological core, taking into account the upper regulatory in a normal sense, the role of the social as a collective is important not only for the typology of personality, but also for the entire mental typology and typology of character.The disadvantage, from the point of view of human typology, in the works of other authors is the underestimation of this and the gap between the personological and psychological, as well as undifferentiated inclusion of the personological into the characterological. In any case, a distinctive feature of the works of Soviet authors (B.G. Ananyev, 1949; A.G. Kovalev, 1950; L.I. Bozhovich, 1968, etc.) is that the socio-pedagogical direction bases the typology on the concept personality, its relationships with people" (ibid., p. 75).

Further, V.N. Myasishchev, pointing out the relevance of the problem of the connection between the individual and the team, which does not exempt researchers from considering them separately, offers his model of the relationship between the biological and social, full-fledged and inferior aspects of the personality. “Let’s imagine a square sheet, the upper half of which is socially positive, the lower half is socially negative, the right half is biologically positive, the left is biologically negative. With infinite diversity, which is the greater the more quantity mapped human properties, an integral assessment of the four temperaments is possible. In our 4-quadrant scheme, four main types can be distinguished: 1) the socially and biologically complete type; 2) socially complete with biological inferiority; 3) biologically complete and socially inferior; and 4) socially and biologically inferior. The identification of these four types is important because it raises the question of the framework correct understanding materialistic monism. No less important is the fact that the solution to the question of the social and biological in the sense of explaining whether a subject belongs to one or another of these four types can be correct only with a sufficiently complete knowledge of its history social development, i.e., its specific somatic and social-labor history" (ibid., p. 76). (See diagram No. 2)

class3 SIGNIFICANT ADULTS AND LEADING ACTIVITIES AS

DECISIVE FACTORS IN FORMING LIFE DIRECTION

PERSONAL POSITIONS class3

The connection between interpersonal relationships of a child’s significant social environment and the developmental tendencies of his personality

According to M.I. Lisina (1997), a child at birth has only the opportunity to become a human being. His mental development throughout his life in its content is, in essence, a process of active assimilation of experience accumulated by previous generations of people. The closest of these people convey to him, first of all, their personal experience. Hence the importance of the psychological readiness of parents, in particular mothers, to fulfill their role, especially for the most important of the future functions - an adequate attitude towards the child in the first days, weeks and months of his life. The key to this function is the adult’s ability to communicate in a person-oriented manner. The fact is that in the first days and weeks the newborn is not yet psychologically separated from the mother (Winnicott D., 1974; Mahler M., 1975) (Hurst, 2000); (Lisina, 1986). Communication is not yet available to the child, but the path to it has already begun, although “emotional birth,” as Margaret Mahler put it, has not yet occurred. The baby’s signals at this time are not personally addressed to anyone, although his anxiety and cries are accurate and objective in their own way. M.I. Lisina and her colleagues came to the conclusion that he is driven by a complex of organic needs and the child’s desire for new experiences - even beyond the boundaries of actual communication, which has not yet arisen. However, M.I. Lisina believes that “the behavior of an adult, his position in relation to the child, is of decisive importance for the emergence of the latter. We... argue that in the first weeks of life the child has a new, previously absent need. in communication - for understanding oneself and others, equally gifted with activity, but infinitely diverse subjects, contacts with which bring the child a completely special, incomparable satisfaction. This is not a selfish need for useful person, but a high spiritual need for the greatest wealth that another person is (Marx K., Engels F. Soch., vol. 42, p. 125). /.../ The described experiments showed that in conditions when an adult systematically addressed him (the child - O.L.) as an individual, a favorite communication partner, the infant’s communicative activity flourished rapidly, which can be considered a manifestation of his need in communication" (Lisina, 1997, pp. 51-52).

M.I. Lisina’s staff revealed that the energetic characteristics of children’s communicative activity are directly dependent on the child’s relationships with close adults. We are talking about the size of the latent period for entering into communication, the number of responses and proactive actions, their frequency and intensity. G.A. Kovalev considers the most fruitful, from the point of view of educational potential, communication to be the “dialogical” type of communication, which has the maximum developmental, educational, and creative impact. The first and main condition for such communication is a “personal” relationship based on a priori unconditional acceptance of each other as values ​​in themselves, on trust and emotional contact between partners. This “personal” relationship differs from the “role” relationship, in which the partner is viewed as an object devoid of individual psychological content, and there is practically no emotional contact (Kovalev, 1996, pp. 18-20).

The data obtained by M.I. Lisina indicate that in the first half of a baby’s life, the leading motive of his communication with adults is a personal motive, although primitive in content, based only on the perception of the attention and tenderness of the Elder and the experience of the most amorphous global feeling of attachment, increasing from meeting to meeting. Referring to the research of N.N. Avdeeva, M.I. Lisina notes “the amazing sensitivity of an infant to the affection and tenderness of an adult, even if they were combined with prohibitions that have an effect on the infant’s behavior that is opposite to signs of attention” (Lisina, 1997, p. 67 ).

Donald Winnicott (Hurst, 2000) has suggested that immediately after birth the baby is still psychologically absent: there is no such thing as a newborn. There is only the baby and the mother, a biological open system, according to Hofer (ibid.), mutually influencing each other's psychological regulatory system, or the “illusion of symbiosis,” according to Crystal (ibid.). M. Mahler (ibid.), developing the problem of the gradual separation of the baby from the mother during his “nurturing”, movement towards the second, “emotional birth”, put forward the idea of ​​​​this process as key from the point of view of the further development of the baby. Insufficient sensitivity of parents, premature and traumatic interruption of the gradual course of the separation process, inappropriate at this phase of development, characterize the inability of the caring figure to ensure the creation of models of regulatory function that the infant could internalize through identification.

If you are depressed, aware of the frailty of existence, worried and thinking about your own imperfection, do not worry - this is temporary. And if your emotional state is in balance and nothing worries you, do not flatter yourself - perhaps this will not last long.

A person’s entire life consists of numerous psychophysiological periods, each of which is characterized by certain emotional levels. The end of each period is fraught with a psychological crisis of age. This is not a diagnosis, it is a part of life, an aging person. Forewarned is forearmed. Understanding what exactly is happening in the body at one time or another will help you easily overcome the age crisis.

Age and age characteristics

From birth to death, a person goes through many stages of personality development. The human psyche changes, restructures and develops throughout life. A person goes through both emotionally stable periods and crisis stages of personality development, which are characterized by an unstable emotional background.

Psychologists describe age-related psychological characteristics step by step. The most obvious changes are related to mental development personality in childhood and adolescence. This period is characterized by the most striking bursts of emotional instability. Such periods are usually associated with an age crisis. But don’t be afraid of the terrible word “crisis”. Typically, such a difficult and emotionally unstable period ends with a qualitative leap in development in childhood, and an adult overcomes another step on the path to the formation of a mature personality.

Stable period and age crisis

Both stable periods of development and crisis natures are characterized by qualitative changes personality. Stable psycho-emotional stages are characterized by a long duration. Such periods of calm usually end with a qualitative positive leap in development. Personality changes, and new acquired skills and knowledge remain for a long time, without often displacing those already formed earlier.

A crisis is a natural incident in a person’s psycho-emotional state. Under unfavorable conditions, such periods can extend up to 2 years. These are short but turbulent stages of personality formation, which also bring new changes in character and behavior. What is meant by unfavorable conditions affecting the duration of the crisis period? This is, first of all, an incorrectly built relationship between man and society. Denial of new personal needs by others. Here we should especially note the crisis periods in the development of children.

Parents and educators often focus on the difficulty of raising children during critical periods of their development.

"I do not want and I will not!" Is it possible to avoid a crisis?

Psychologists argue that the bright manifestations of the critical period are not a problem of the child, but of a society that is not ready for behavior change. Age characteristics children are formed from birth and change throughout life under the influence of upbringing. The formation of a child’s personality occurs in society, which has a direct impact on the psycho-emotional development of the individual. Childhood crises are often associated with socialization. It is impossible to avoid the crisis as such, but properly built child-adult relationships help to shorten the duration of this period.

A crisis younger age arises due to the baby’s inability to satisfy his new needs. At 2 or 3 years old, he realizes his independence and strives to make his own decisions. But due to his age, he cannot sensibly assess the situation or is physically unable to perform any action. An adult comes to the rescue, but this causes a clear protest from the baby. You tell your child to walk on a smooth road, but he deliberately gets into puddles or mud. When you suggest going home, the child runs off to chase pigeons. All attempts to pull the blanket over themselves end in childish hysterics and tears.

No exit?

During such periods, all parents feel that the child does not hear them, and frequent negative emotional outbursts unsettle them. At such moments, it is important to save face, no matter how difficult it may be, and remember that you are the only adult in this situation and only you are able to build constructive communication.

What to do? The answer to children's tantrums

If a child strives to make decisions on his own, it is worth helping him make an adequate choice. What to do if hysteria occurs? You don’t always need to rush headlong to console your child, promising him peace and quiet in return. Of course, at first it will be the most in a fast way put an end to the hysteria, and in the future will lead to elementary blackmail on the part of the child. Children very quickly learn to understand cause-and-effect relationships, so when they realize why they suddenly receive sweets or a toy, they will demand it with a cry.

Of course, you cannot ignore a child’s feelings, but in some cases you can calmly explain that such behavior is his own choice, and if he is comfortable in this state, so be it. Often, age-related characteristics in the form of whims and hysterics of children aged 2-3 years are a test of strength, a search for the boundaries of permissibility, and it is important to clearly define these boundaries, without thereby depriving the child of the right to choose. He can sit in the middle of the street and cry or go with his parents to see where that blue truck went - that's his choice. At the age of 2-3 years, you can delegate basic household chores to your child: unpack a shopping bag, feed a pet, or bring cutlery. This will help the child adequately perceive his independence.

Primary juniors

The first critical period in early childhood occurs in newborns. And it's called the newborn crisis. This is a natural stage in the development of a new person who is suddenly faced with a catastrophic change in conditions environment. Helplessness, coupled with awareness of one's own physical life, contributes to stress for a small organism. Typically, the first weeks of a child's life are characterized by weight loss - this is a consequence of stress due to global change conditions and complete restructuring of the body. The main task that a child must solve during a critical period of his development (newborn crisis) is to gain confidence in the world around him. And the world for a baby in the first months of life is, first of all, his family.

The child expresses his needs and feelings through crying. This is the only way of communication available to him in the first months of life. All age periods are characterized by a certain set of needs and ways of expressing these needs. There is no need to reinvent the wheel, trying to understand what a 2-month-old baby needs and why he cries. The newborn period is characterized by only basic primary needs: nutrition, sleep, comfort, warmth, health, cleanliness. The child is able to satisfy some of the needs on his own, but the main task of the adult is to provide conditions for satisfying all the necessary needs of the baby. The first crisis period ends with the emergence of attachment. Using the example of the newborn crisis, it can be clearly explained that all the characteristics of behavior and emotional state in certain periods of life are caused by the eventual emergence of a qualitative neoplasm. A newborn baby goes through many stages of accepting himself and his body, calls for help, he realizes that he gets what he needs by expressing emotions, and learns to trust.

First year crisis

The age and individual characteristics of a person are formed under the influence of society and depend on the skills of communication with the outside world. In the first year of life, the child begins to communicate with the environment and learns certain boundaries. The level of his needs increases, and the way he achieves his goals changes accordingly.

A gap appears between desires and the way they are expressed. This is the reason for the beginning of the critical period. The child must master speech to meet new needs.

The age of three years is associated with the formation of personality and one’s own will. This difficult period is characterized by disobedience, protests, stubbornness and negativism. The child is aware of the conventions of the designated boundaries, understands his indirect connection with the world and actively expresses his “I”.

But this critical period plays a very important role in the ability to formulate your goals and find adequate ways to achieve them.

Human development is not a spontaneous and far from spasmodic process, but a completely uniform flow, subject to reasonable management and self-regulation. The age characteristics of children and adults depend on the results of communication with the outside world and themselves. The reason for the occurrence of critical periods is the incorrect completion of a stable period of personality development. A person approaches the stage of completing one period with certain needs and goals, but cannot understand what to do about it. An internal contradiction occurs.

Is it possible to avoid critical periods? When talking about preventing a crisis in childhood, it is worth paying attention to the zone of proximal development. What does it mean?

One step ahead

In the learning process, it is worth highlighting the level of actual and potential development. The level of actual development of a child is determined by his ability to perform certain actions independently without outside help. This applies to both simple everyday issues and tasks related to intellectual activity. The principle of the zone of proximal development is an emphasis on the level of potential development of the child. This level implies that the child is able to solve in cooperation with adults. This teaching principle will help expand the boundaries of its development.

Theoretically and practically, this method can also be used by adults. After all, critical periods are characteristic of all ages.

Adult crises

Childlike spontaneity, youthful maximalism, senile grumpiness - all these age-related characteristics of a person characterize critical periods of his development. At the age of 12-15, young people very aggressively try to climb a step higher, proving their maturity and stable worldview.

Negativism, protest, egocentrism are common age-related characteristics of schoolchildren.

The stormy period of teenage maximalism, which is characterized by the young person’s zeal to take a more adult position, gives way to the period of adulthood. And here comes either a long emotionally stable period, or another crisis associated with determining one’s life path. This critical period has no clear boundaries. It can overtake a 20-year-old person, or it can suddenly complement midlife crises (and complicate them even more).

Whom I want to become?

Many people cannot find an answer to this question throughout their lives. And an incorrectly chosen path in life can negatively affect one’s awareness of one’s purpose. A person does not always have complete control over his destiny. We remember that a person will melt in the harsh conditions of the social environment.

The path in life is often also chosen for children by their parents. Some give freedom of choice, directing them in a certain direction, while others deprive their children of the right to vote, deciding their professional fate on their own. Neither the first nor the second case guarantees avoidance of the critical period. But accepting one’s own mistake is often easier than looking for those responsible for one’s fiasco.

The reason for the occurrence of a critical period is often the incorrect completion of the previous period, the absence of a specific turning point. Using the example of the question “what do I want to become,” this is quite easy to explain and understand.

This question has accompanied us since childhood. It happens that knowing the exact answer, we gradually move towards achieving our goal and, as a result, become what we dreamed of becoming in childhood: a doctor, a teacher, a businessman. If this desire is conscious, the need for self-realization and, accordingly, self-satisfaction comes.

But very often the question “what do I really want to become” can accompany a person for a very long time. And now, it would seem, the person has already grown up, but still has not decided. Numerous attempts at self-realization end in failure, but there is still no answer to the question. And this snowball, growing, rolls from one period to another, often exacerbating the crisis of 30 years and the midlife crisis.

Turning thirty is a period when productivity is family relationships becomes the opposite of creative stagnation. At this age, a person tends to overestimate his satisfaction with his personal and professional life. Often during this period, people get divorced or quit their jobs under the pretext of “I’m capable of more” (remember the question “who do I want to be”).

The main task of the critical period of 30 years is to subordinate your activities to the idea. Either firmly follow the intended goal in the chosen direction, or identify a new goal. This applies to both family life, so professional activity.

Middle age crisis

When you are no longer young, but old age is not yet tapping you on the shoulder, it’s time to reassess your values. It's time to think about the meaning of life. The search for the main idea and predetermination, maladjustment are age-related characteristics of the period of maturity.

Sometimes a person comes down from his pedestal to reconsider his ideas and goals, look back at the path he has taken and accept mistakes. During the critical period, a certain contradiction is resolved: a person either goes into the family circle, or goes beyond the narrowly defined boundaries, showing interest in the fate of people outside the family circle.

Debriefing crisis

Old age is a time for summing up, integration and an objective assessment of the stage passed. This is the most difficult stage, when there is a decrease in social status and a deterioration in physical condition. A person looks back and rethinks his decisions and actions. The main question to answer is: “Am I satisfied?”

At different poles there are people who accept their lives and their decisions, and those who experience indignation and dissatisfaction with the life they have lived. Often the latter project their dissatisfaction onto others. Old age is characterized by wisdom.

Two simple questions will help you make the right decisions during any critical period: “Who do I want to be?” and “Am I happy?” How it works? If the answer to the question “am I satisfied” is yes, you are on the right track. If negative, go back to the question “who do I want to be” and look for the answer.

The development of relationships with peers in preschoolers is closely related to the development of the child’s self-awareness and to the fact that the relationship between the objective and personal principles changes throughout preschool age.

D.B. Elkonin suggested that the development of a child’s self-awareness can be considered as the differentiation and internal relationships of the “I” and “Not-I” of the child. This internal “Not-I,” on the one hand, evaluates and cognizes the subject himself (and then, in the words of M.M. Bakhtin, he “looks at himself through the eyes of another”), and on the other, is the subject of circulation and dialogue (and then the person “looks into the eyes of the other”). In both cases, during an external meeting with another, a person relates himself to the other, that is, relates to him. The attitude towards oneself and the attitude towards another are different, but inextricably linked aspects of a single self-awareness.

The ontogenetic development of a child’s self-awareness and attitude towards others can be represented as a complex interweaving and interchangeability of these two principles. The child’s consciousness is initially dialogical, and the other is always present in it. The functions and specific personification of this other change with age. Initially, this internal other is an adult for the child. At a certain stage of age development, this becomes a peer. This process can be represented as the “entry” of a peer into the child’s inner world, into the composition of his self-awareness.

These provisions make it possible to emphasize that preschoolers, constantly in communication with each other, find themselves included in the system of interpersonal relationships.

In preschool age (from 3 to 6-7 years), children's interpersonal relationships go through a rather complex path of age-related development, in which three main stages can be distinguished: junior preschool age (3 years); middle preschool age (4-5 years); senior preschool age (from 5 to 7 years).

Interpersonal relationships in the peer group significantly affects the development of the child’s personality. In kindergarten, relationships and connections represent a relatively stable system in which each child occupies a certain place. In a kindergarten group, there are three types of interpersonal relationships:

• 1) interpersonal relationships, which can be identified by analyzing the objective connections of children established during interaction in joint activities and communication;
• 2) interpersonal relationships, revealed when considering the selective relationships existing in the group;
• 3) the type of relationship that manifests itself in the system of mutual assessments by children of each other that exist in the group.

Let us take a closer look at the features of interpersonal relationships among children of senior preschool age.

By older preschool age, a peer becomes for the child not only a subject of comparison with himself, but also an integral personality. These changes in attitude towards peers reflect certain shifts in the preschooler’s self-awareness.

By the age of six, the number of prosocial actions, emotional involvement in the activities and experiences of a peer increases significantly. This is explained by the development of arbitrariness of behavior and the assimilation of moral norms.

Prosocial actions of older preschoolers are no longer aimed at a positive assessment of an adult or at observing moral standards, but directly at another child. Gradually, a peer becomes for a preschooler not only a subject of comparison with himself, but also a valuable personality in his own right, and, consequently, emotional involvement in his actions increases. Equality of peers allows the child to directly “overlay” his attitude towards the world he perceives on the attitude of his partner. Thus, the need for a peer is transformed from younger preschool age to older: from the need for benevolent attention and play cooperation in early preschool age through middle preschool age with its dominant need for benevolent attention of a peer - to senior preschool age with its needs not only for benevolent attention, but also in the desire to share experiences with peers.

By older preschool age, children begin to realize not only their specific actions, but also their desires, experiences, and motives, which, unlike actions, unite and consolidate the child’s personality as a whole. This is explained by the development of decentration, thanks to which the child becomes able to understand the point of view of another (J. Piaget).

By the age of six, many children have a direct and selfless desire to help a peer, give or give him something. Non-judgmental emotional involvement in his actions may indicate that the peer has become a complete person for the child.

It should be noted that in older preschool age the leading activity is role-playing play. In gaming associations there is a commonality of requirements, consistency of action, and joint planning. Real and play relationships are differentiated and recognized by children. The child begins to take into account the interests of partners. Interaction with a peer acts not only as a condition for achieving a common goal, but also as the goal itself. The ability to mutual support, a sense of camaraderie, and empathy for successes and failures are demonstrated. Children are able to realize the effectiveness of a jointly interacting form of organizing activity and its construction in their games, construction, and work. In activities structured according to the “jointly-friendly-together” type, and not according to the “side by side, but not together” type, relationships of mutual responsibility, dependence and assistance are formed - the basis of collectivism and camaraderie.

Thus, for older preschoolers, role-playing games become truly collective. One child cannot cope with the dramatization of a plan; business cooperation is required, which is ensured by actual business communication of the “now” and “here” type. The child seeks to attract attention. He is especially sensitive to various “signs” of how other children treat him. At the same time, the child begins to see the shortcomings of his peer. This feature of perception is combined with a jealous interest in all his actions, actions, and assessments. The child’s need for self-knowledge and positive self-perception also manifests itself.

After what has been said, it is clear that by older preschool age, a peer is for a child not only a preferred partner for communication and joint activities, not only a means of self-knowledge, but also an integral part of his self-awareness, the subject of the circulation of his holistic, indecomposable “I”. Comparing and contrasting oneself with a peer turns into an internal community that makes deeper interpersonal relationships possible in children.

This is, in general terms, the attitude of an older preschooler towards a peer. However, within this relationship, various individual options are possible. There are also problematic forms interpersonal relationships. Among the most typical options for preschool children are: aggressiveness, touchiness, shyness, demonstrativeness. Identifying the presence of such problems in a child can help to understand the existing characteristics in the child’s relationships with other children.

Thus, the kindergarten group is a holistic education, representing a single functional system with its own structure and dynamics. There is a complex system of interpersonal hierarchical connections of its members in accordance with their business and personal qualities, value orientations of the group, which determine which qualities are most highly valued in it.

In connection with the above, we emphasize that a peer is an important component child's life. During the period of preschool childhood, the child goes a long way in mastering the social space with its system of normative behavior in interpersonal relationships with children. It should also be noted that interpersonal relationships in children do not always express themselves in external actions and are a side of the child’s consciousness. And by the senior preschool age, the child begins to perceive himself and others as a holistic personality, not reducible to individual qualities, thanks to which a personal relationship with a peer becomes possible.

T.A. Repina conducted research that proved that a group in a preschool institution is not an amorphous association in which relationships and connections between children develop randomly and spontaneously.

The relationship between older preschoolers is a very stable system in which all children have their role. What place a child will take in this system depends on the child’s personality traits, as well as how it is in the group itself.

Children at this age not only acquire certain behavioral characteristics, but each of them acquires their own individual ways of building relationships with peers. This is a particularly bright side of a child’s life, in which he reveals his personality most fully. Of course, it often happens that a preschooler’s relationships with his peers are far from harmonious.

Children are often involved in many conflicts, which is a manifestation of internal distortion in the formation. We believe that the psychological reason for individual ways of building relationships with peers is the difference between children in how they carry out objective activities and what personal qualities they have. Usually, as a result of disagreements between guys, difficult emotions are born, such as resentment, anger, or even fear.

This is especially acute in cases where the objective principle comes to the fore, that is, children perceive other children only as competitors who need to be defeated in order to achieve proper treatment and feel confident. Often such expectations remain unjustified, which leads to feelings that destroy the personality.

As a result, even in adulthood a person may experience serious problems with himself and with the people around him. Before the teacher and parents lies important task– notice dangerous tendencies in a child’s behavior as early as possible and help overcome them in the early stages.

Classification of interpersonal relationships

In kindergarten groups, the following types of interpersonal relationships can be distinguished:

1. Functional-role. These relationships are formed in the process of such activities as work activity, educational activities or cooperative role-playing. Thanks to these types of activities, the preschooler begins to develop the habit of applying norms of behavior in a team under the reliable supervision of an adult teacher.
2. Emotionally-evaluative. This is a type of relationship that is characterized by the fact that a person begins to correct the behavior of another person that is incorrect in his opinion, especially when it contradicts the norms of behavior accepted in society. Typically, this type of relationship is formed under the influence of emotional connections that arise between people - their likes or dislikes, as well as friendly relations. Emotional-evaluative relationships begin to form very early, which is influenced by how the adult with whom the child often interacts evaluates others.
3. Personal and semantic. These relationships within a group in kindergarten, which manifest themselves in the fact that the motives of one pupil become endowed with personal meaning for other children. Peers begin to worry about each other, the motives of such a person become their motives for them, which is expressed in their actions.

Let's consider what are the signs of interpersonal relationships that arise in older preschoolers.

The main task of collective activity in the preschool period is the development of such models of relationships that will need to be applied later in life. This will allow children to mature socially and reach their potential in terms of morality and intelligence.

Signs of interpersonal communication in children

It turns out that for preschoolers in their interpersonal relationships there are the following signs:

1. Children develop norms and stereotypes that influence emerging interpersonal relationships.
2. To start a relationship, the adult takes the initiative.
3. Contacts do not occur for long.
4. Children try to establish relationships with those who are younger, while by their actions they show that they are imitating someone who is older. They try to imitate those who are close to them.
5. A feature of interpersonal relationships in the preschool period is that they try to be as similar as possible to adults.

The main activity during this period of life is. D.B. Elkonin wrote that the game in its essence is a social activity. During play, children try to project the world of adults. It is the game that at a certain period of a person’s life has maximum impact the development of the psychological component of a child’s development and the main way of learning about the adult world.

Psychologists believe that personal development is a process during which he assimilates universal human experience and the values ​​of society. With the help of games, children reproduce how they see reality, therefore the rules of games often reflect generally accepted norms and rules recognized in society. Repeating the same game becomes a kind of training for social development.

A.N. Leontyev shows that only through play is a child able to acquire a wider range of reality than he can perceive from ordinary activities. Thanks to play, the child realizes his individuality and acquires personal qualities. Through play, children demonstrate social creativity and try to express themselves. The game is very informative.

With the help of the game, the preschooler tries to determine his place within the team, acquires social experience of behavior, and tries to reproduce the norms and rules of behavior in society learned in life.

The play activity of preschool children includes real social relationships that develop between the participants in the game. Relationships are the main component of the gameplay.

Typically, the relationships that are demonstrated during play activities are very different from what their relationships actually are. The game implies a certain plot in which each player plays his role and obeys certain rules. Children do not have the opportunity to decide for themselves how to build their relationships with other players.

It turns out that the conditions of most games neutralize the relationships between children, which deprives them of the opportunity to acquire real social experience, which is very important for the proper development of preschool children's society.

It is necessary to organize games in such a way as to meet the needs of children in social sphere. At the same time, you need to be prepared for the fact that a lot of time will pass until the child is able to show individuality in his behavior and begins to independently make decisions regarding collective activities.

When raising children, you need to help them develop concentration during individual games, and you also need to help them improve their relationships with their classmates. By playing alongside other peers, children can simultaneously engage in activities they enjoy while forming real, self-directed relationships with other group members. And the fact that everyone is busy with their own game helps to eliminate situations that could provoke conflicts.

Children begin to tolerate the shortcomings of others because everyone is focused on their own play.

By watching your baby play, as well as talking with their parents and caregivers, you can find out how actively he interacts with others. If a child tends to play with himself, then you can help him get involved in joint games with his parents and peers in the group. To do this, you can create game situations. Role-playing games form good conditions that shape interpersonal relationships.

A.P. Usova conducted research that showed that there are several stages in the formation of interpersonal relationships.

Each stage is characterized by its own level of social development. By public, Usova means the ability to enter a team of players, cooperate with them properly and establish relationships with the guys.

By studying the sequence of social development in preschool children, we will be able to understand what kind of children's societies there are, what should be expected from each individual behavior and from his relationships with others, as well as how the game itself proceeds.

Age stages in children's communication

There are several age stages that affect a child's ability to live in the company of other children.

1. Stage one. At a very early age, when children just start attending kindergarten, they tend to play alone with toys without the interaction of others. This allows you to calmly get along with a team with whom they maintain practically no communication. The preschooler is completely focused on what he is playing. This is a very important stage that allows children to show independence when surrounded by other people.
2. Second phase. They start playing their games next to each other. They are still not distracted by each other's games, but now they strive to be close to those they like best. At this stage, an awareness is formed of how to properly relate to another person’s games so as not to disturb him.
3. Third stage. Begins to make attempts to act in accordance with the general plan. He tries to negotiate with others about playing together and even selects the toys needed for this. However, such joint attempts at play quickly end.
4. Stage four. It is characterized by the fact that children begin to unite in groups and play together according to a common plan. At the same time, they begin to internally evaluate their own actions in accordance with the general plan, as well as the actions of others. Children are able to come up with joint games, organize them and play them together for a long time.
5. Stage five. It is characterized by the fact that children acquire the ability to act, taking into account the interests of others. During the game, they tend to give in to others when distributing roles.

The stages described above are typical between the ages of one and seven years.
The game includes two types of relationships: game relationships and real relationships. Game relationships are formed based on the plot and assigned roles. Naturally, the wolf will treat the kids poorly.

However, real relationships are those that actually exist between preschoolers, combined into one game.

Constantly being in the children's environment, the child often enters into certain interactions with them: asks them to bring a toy, encourages them to play together, etc. At the first stages, these interactions often arise spontaneously and proceed purely mechanically - he perceives other people at the level of things. As soon as the task is solved, the interaction immediately ends.

At first, when kids just start playing together, you can often observe some inconsistency in their actions. This usually becomes the cause of frequent contradictions, and the connections between children are still fragile. As a result, joint games quickly end; children often change their game plans and often change roles with each other.

This is natural for children, because they have not yet developed the ability to fully carry out collective activities. It is the game that is that wonderful tool that allows you to gain experience interacting with others and learn to follow socially accepted norms of behavior.

It is in games that the entire life of children’s society takes place. They themselves form relationships in this society.

Therefore, in order for play activities to contribute to the formation of a full-fledged children's team, it is necessary to give this activity those features that include pedagogical conditions.

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