Modern psychoanalysis theory and practice. Elena Zmanovskaya - Modern psychoanalysis. Modern psychoanalysis. Theory and practice

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Modern psychoanalysis, which grew out of the ideas of Sigmund Freud, is a continuously developing system of theories and methods designed to reveal the most hidden aspects of human nature. Here is one of the first Russian publications that integrates the basic concepts of psychoanalysis and post-classical analytical approaches into the system of modern scientific and practical knowledge.

Along with the metapsychology of Freud and his followers, the book presents an analysis modern schools psychoanalysis, describes the main provisions of clinical psychoanalysis and family psychotherapy. The deep aspects of group interaction, charismatic leadership, destructive cults, as well as the psychological effects of the media are revealed. Particular attention is paid to unconscious fantasies and hidden motives of people's behavior.

The book is addressed to psychologists, doctors, teachers, sociologists, representatives of related specialties, as well as students of specialized faculties of higher educational institutions.

Elena Zmanovskaya

Preface

Elena Zmanovskaya

Modern psychoanalysis. Theory and practice

Preface

The truth will set you free.

Z. Freud

Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis became the historical event that radically changed people's ideas about themselves. The emergence of depth psychology, which openly declared the dominance of drives and the existence of infantile sexuality, was met with violent indignation from the conservative-minded public at the beginning of the 20th century. The period of active resistance to psychoanalytic knowledge, fortunately, did not last long and quite soon gave way to a stage of growing interest in it. To date, psychoanalytic ideas have become an integral part of human culture and have found application in almost all areas social life. At the same time, due to a number of historical and psychological reasons, the name of Freud remains shrouded in a trail of uncertainty. Common ideas about psychoanalysis are for the most part reduced to simplified and very far from the truth cliches, causing contradictory, and in some cases, unreasonably negative attitudes from people.

Defining what is psychoanalysis, Z. Freud pointed out that it simultaneously hides: 1) a method of studying mental processes that are inaccessible to ordinary understanding; 2) method of treating neuroses; 3) a number of resulting psychological theories. The idea of creating a general psychological concept (metapsychology), revealing the basic patterns of human mental life in normal and pathological conditions, never left Freud. As a result of the implementation of this plan, the basic principles of classical psychoanalysis were developed, constituting the theoretical and methodological basis for all subsequent psychoanalytic schools.

In more than a hundred years of its existence, psychoanalysis has undergone dramatic changes. In the field of Sigmund Freud's monotheistic concept, a complex scientific system has grown, including a variety of theoretical views and practical approaches. Modern psychoanalysis is a set of approaches united by a common subject of research, the role of which is partially or completely unconscious aspects of people's mental life. The general goal of psychoanalytic work is defined as the liberation of individuals from various unconscious restrictions that cause suffering and block the process of progressive development.

Distinctive feature psychoanalysis has always been close connection between theory and practice. Psychoanalysis originated as a method of treating neuroses and developed as a doctrine of unconscious processes, on the foundation of which a scientific and practical system gradually formed, aimed at solving a variety of social problems. In modern psychoanalysis, three interrelated directions are clearly distinguished: psychoanalytic theory, which forms the basis for various practical approaches, clinical psychoanalysis, focused on providing psychological and psychotherapeutic assistance in case of personal difficulties or neuropsychic disorders, and applied psychoanalysis, aimed at analyzing cultural phenomena and solving social problems.

At this stage of development, psychoanalysis is no longer a monolithic entity, uniting many subsystems within the framework of a general methodology. In this regard, two main paradigms are distinguished: classical (orthodox) psychoanalysis, consistently developing the ideas proposed by Freud, and modern (heterodox) psychoanalysis, complementing the classical approach with new original concepts and methods. It is not possible to list all modern psychoanalytic theories. Within the framework of the general outline, psychoanalytic schools are distinguished that place emphasis on certain theoretical positions or technical aspects, for example, the Kleinian tradition, the school of Anna Freud, the theory of object relations, ego psychology, Lacanian structural psychoanalysis and others.

As an alternative, but close to psychoanalysis, option is developing psychodynamic approach, used by numerous consolidated groups, including: Jungians, Adlerians, representatives of transactional analysis and many other researchers, whose original approaches to theory and practice, although they deviate from the main psychoanalytic framework, have undoubted scientific and practical value.

In relation to psychotherapeutic practice, there are three relatively independent areas: 1) classical technique of psychoanalysis (psychoanalysis); 2) psychoanalytic therapy; 3) psychodynamic approaches. In the first case, the treatment of individuals is built in maximum accordance with the methodology proposed by Freud; in the second case, some deviations from the classical canons are allowed, for example, by reducing the number of meetings with the patient from five to twice a week; in the third version there are fundamental deviations from the original psychoanalytic technique.

Modern psychoanalysis is a continuously developing system within which the classical heritage is naturally transformed into current knowledge. Any historical era focuses its attention on concepts that reflect the urgent needs of society. If during the period of Freud's work they were especially popular drive theory And concept of infantile sexuality, then at present the undoubted leaders in the field of psychoanalytic ideas are object relations theory and ego psychology. At the same time, the technique of psychoanalysis is constantly changing.

The listed features of the subject being studied are most fully covered in specialized literature, among which a special place is occupied by the two-volume H. Thome and H. Kächele “Modern psychoanalysis”(literal translation from German is “Textbook of Psychoanalytic Therapy”). This work is a systematic guide to the use of the theory and methodology of psychoanalysis by practicing psychotherapists. For all its depth and content, the book by Thome and Kaechele, like many other psychoanalytic publications, is aimed at specialists with thorough professional training, but for an untrained reader it is quite difficult, and in some cases simply impossible, to benefit from such literature due to the expressed specificity of the latter.

This work has the same title, but is aimed at a more accessible to a wide audience and at the same time scientifically based description of modern psychoanalysis as a dynamically developing system that integrates psychoanalytic theories and their practical application.

The book consists of three parts. The first chapter introduces the basic concepts of psychoanalysis. Here are the basic concepts of Sigmund Freud, creating a unified context for the entire psychoanalytic system. The second chapter of the first part contains an analysis of the views of Freud and his followers on social processes that form the basis of modern applied psychoanalysis.

The second part of the book is devoted to a discussion of modern schools of psychoanalysis, most of which are focused on solving clinical problems. Term clinical psychoanalysis, although not fully reflecting the reality it denotes, is sufficiently ingrained in people’s minds to designate the “therapeutic” goals of psychoanalysis. The modern practice of psychoanalysis has gone far beyond the boundaries of the treatment of neuroses. Despite the fact that neurotic symptoms are still considered as an indication for the use of classical techniques, modern psychoanalysis finds adequate methods of helping people with a wide variety of problems - from ordinary psychological difficulties to severe mental disorders.

The second chapter of the second part reveals the principles and features of the organization of individual forms of clinical psychoanalysis using the example of two main options: classical technique and modern psychoanalytic therapy. Practice shows that psychoanalysts, initially focused on individual work with the patient, there is increasing recognition of the importance of couples counseling and family therapy. This relatively new application of psychoanalysis became relevant in the 1960s and 1970s due to the emerging trend of a crisis in the traditional patriarchal family model. Currently, relationship therapy is in demand by society and can be considered as expanding the analyst’s capabilities in solving therapeutic problems.

The third section of the book provides the definition and main provisions applied psychoanalysis. Based on this, the deep aspects of current social phenomena are revealed: group interaction, mass culture, charismatic leadership, as well as the psychological effects of advertising and the media. To increase the effectiveness of readers' perception, the listed social phenomena are considered primarily from the perspective of classical psychoanalysis. The main attention is paid to the unconscious fantasies and motives of people's behavior in society. Using the example of modern advertising, the possibilities of applying psychoanalytic ideas to solving various social problems are demonstrated.

Unfortunately, due to the limited volume of the book, it was not possible to cover all modern psychoanalytic schools, including the Jungian movement, structural psychoanalysis of J. Lacan, group analysis and others. These approaches are widely represented in the literature and deserve separate study. In this manual, the specific task of describing current state classical tradition of psychoanalysis. I would like to hope that the psychoanalytic ideas discussed will be useful both for understanding one’s own life experience readers, and to increase the level of their professional competence.

...

E. V. Zmanovskaya

Part 1 Psychoanalysis as metapsychology

Chapter 1 Basic concepts of psychoanalysis by Sigmund Freud

Freud, hypnosis and free association

And a solver of riddles, and a powerful king.

Sophocles "Oedipus the King"

For a long time, what we call psychoanalysis was the creation of one man - Sigmund Freud. Psychoanalysis, like a mirror, reflected both Freud's personality and his time.

Sigmund Freud was born on May 6, 1856 in the family of wool merchant Jacob Freud in Freiberg (Czech Republic). The boy was born in a “shirt,” which allowed his relatives to hope for his great future. Sigmund was the eldest child in this family - with a long gap he was followed by five sisters and one brother. Probably due to this circumstance, responsibility for the people around him became the main character trait of Freud.

Freud's family moved several times due to widespread anti-Semitic persecution. One of Sigmund’s youthful shocks was his father’s story about how a Christian knocked his hat off with his fist and cursed him “Jew.” But what struck young Freud even more was the fact that his father did not try to stand up for himself. Freud recalled: “ To this situation I contrasted another, more in keeping with my feelings: the scene during which Hannibal's father Hamilcar Barca made his son swear before the altar that he would take revenge on the Romans. Hannibal has figured prominently in my fantasies ever since.» .

Anti-Semitic sentiments, clearly expressed in Europe at that time, could not but affect the emerging character of Sigmund. Perhaps this circumstance determined the will to fight and courage that Freud demonstrated throughout his life.

Sigmund's mother Amalia adored her first-born. Maternal pride and love, according to eyewitnesses, had a decisive influence on her son. Freud later wrote: " I became convinced that people who, for some reason, were singled out by their mother in childhood, display in later life that special self-confidence and that unshakable optimism, which often seems heroic and really creates success for these people in life.”.

On the other hand, probably due to his father's liberal nature, Freud grew up without a deep belief in God. Early reading of the Bible had an intellectual rather than a religious effect on the boy. Majestic images were more significant for the development of Freud's personality historical characters: Hanniball, Socrates, Oedipus, Moses, Leonardo da Vinci... Freud seemed to have absorbed the energy, wisdom and courage of these heroes. The divine passion for knowledge led him to the road of the Hero - the road of self-knowledge.

In 1873, at the insistence of his father, Sigmund entered the University of Vienna, after which he was awarded the degree of Doctor of Medicine in 1881. For the next fifteen months, Freud worked at the Physiological Institute. But in 1882, due to his poor financial situation, he made a fateful decision - to leave the Brücke Institute and devote himself to medical practice.

Gradually, Freud's interest focused on nervous diseases. It should be noted that this was the time of an anatomical approach to neuropsychiatric diseases. The causes of the latter were considered to be exclusively brain disorders, such as a tumor. It never occurred to anyone that the source of bodily ailments could lie in the patient’s emotional experiences. Doctors viewed the patient as a “suffering body,” ignoring his life history and what we now call his psyche.

In 1885, while studying at the Salpêtrière clinic with the famous French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot, who “was the first to clarify the problem of hysteria,” Freud seriously questioned his previous mechanistic views. Charcot also made a lasting personal impression on the young Freud. From now on, Freud became more and more attracted clinical method studying the patient - through observation and correlation of various facts of his life.

Viennese physician Joseph Breuer (1842–1945), with whom long years Freud was a friend and collaborator, and was another person involved in the birth of a new science. Breuer gave psychoanalysis cathartic method and the very first clinical example - the case of Anna O.(Bertha Pappenheim).

From December 1880 to June 1882, Breuer treated the lady-in-waiting Anna O. The patient was a gifted twenty-one-year-old girl who developed many severe symptoms after the death of her father. She was tormented by spastic paralysis of the limbs, speech and vision disorders, aversion to food and a nervous cough. Talking during the session about the details of the origin of her symptoms, the patient felt significant relief until their complete disappearance. She called a similar procedure talking therapy, or cleaning pipes.

For a year, Breuer patiently observed this patient. Thanks to his insight and talent, psychotherapy appeared new method which Breuer called cathartic and which is still used successfully today.

The case of Anna O. made a special impression on Freud. He became more and more interested idea of psychogenic origin certain disorders, such as symptoms of hysteria. According to Freud, hidden thoughts and experiences give rise to internal struggles and painful symptoms. All this meant that no matter how unknown the neurological basis of the disease, its symptoms themselves could be eliminated by mental ideas alone. And this, in turn, opened the door to psychology for doctors.

Since December 1887, Freud increasingly begins to use hypnotic suggestion and the cathartic method in his work with patients - the patient’s memories in a state of hypnotic suggestion. However, Freud, like other doctors, was not always able to immerse the patient deeply enough in hypnosis. In addition, hypnotic suggestion brought relief to the patient for a very short period of time. One way or another, expressed dissatisfaction with the “effectiveness” of hypnosis prompted Freud to make adjustments to the generally accepted treatment method. Freud relied more and more on his patients' memories. At the same time, Freud noted that therapeutic improvement depends from personal relationships between therapist and patient.

Gradually Freud came to one of his main discoveries - the idea free associations. The case of Elisabeth von R. (autumn 1892) was the first time Freud abandoned hypnosis and used a new method mental analysis.

Ernest Jones, Freud's colleague, describes his work this way: " Female patient lying on a couch with eyes closed, he asked to focus your attention on a specific symptom and try to recall in your memory all the memories that could shed light on its origin. When the patient did not succeed, Freud usually pressed his hand on her forehead and made a suggestion that now some thoughts or memories would undoubtedly come to her Freud gave a strict instruction to ignore any criticism and express any thought, even if it seems irrelevant, irrelevant of great importance or too unpleasant» .

In other words, one thing was required from the patient - to completely freely say everything that comes to mind during the treatment process. Gradually, in contrast to general practice, Freud learned not to interrupt the flow of thoughts of his patients, largely thanks to his patience and internal attitude toward “non-interference.”

The free association method marked the birth of a new approach to mental disorders and the mental life of man in general. In 1896, in one of his works, Freud first used the term revolutionary at that time - psychoanalysis, meaning by this both a method for studying mental processes and a new method for treating neuroses. Free associations have truly become free.

Depths of the unconscious (topographic model)

The mental life of a person is like an iceberg, only a small part of which rises above the water and is conscious of us.

Z. Freud

Life daily testifies to the fact that “we are not masters in our own house.” Much of what happens to us is not realized or is beyond conscious control. The hardest thing is to understand ourselves.

The first statement of psychoanalysis was the recognition of the important role of unconscious processes in human life. The psyche is always active - both during wakefulness and during sleep, but only a small part of mental activity at any given moment is conscious of us. Sigmund Freud emphasized: “ Mental processes themselves are unconscious; only some acts and aspects of mental life are conscious.» .

Freud postulated the existence of three main parts of the psyche, schematically placed along a vertical axis from the most superficial to the deepest layer. Everything that constitutes consciously perceived images and ideas (memory content, thoughts, interests, feelings) was assigned to the surface layer - conscious. Slightly “below” is located preconscious- contents of mental life that, under certain conditions and sufficient concentration of attention, are capable of reaching the realm of consciousness. Everything that cannot be brought into this area, despite any efforts and concentration of attention, belongs to the deepest layer of the psyche - unconscious.

Thus, adjective "unconscious" denotes that mental content that is inaccessible to awareness in general or at the moment. First of all, the unconscious includes various shapes instinctive impulses, drives, unconscious ideas and memories, affects and fantasies. Children's desires are also widely represented in the unconscious. They create a strong motivation to seek pleasure without taking into account the requirements of reality and common sense. As a noun term " unconscious" means one of the dynamic systems described by Freud in his early topographic theory mental apparatus. The term “topographic” comes from the ancient Greek language and is translated as “the relative location and outline of individual spatial areas.” With the help of a topographical model, Freud sought to determine the location of mental phenomena in relation to consciousness.

Freud believed that most of mental content and mental activity, reflecting instinctive drives, has never been conscious and remains so throughout a person’s life. Some unconscious ideas can move into the sphere of consciousness, that is, we become aware of them under certain conditions. Finally, some part of the unconscious content appears to us in a disguised form, “breaking through” in the form of erroneous actions, slips of the tongue, dreams, incoherent thoughts, and painful symptoms.

Freud wrote: " We compare the system of the unconscious to a large antechamber in which mental movements swarm like individual beings. Adjacent to this hallway is another room, narrower, like a living room, in which consciousness also resides.» .

Why is the unconscious so inaccessible to the individual? Because in the way of desires there are two censorship barriers, located respectively between unconscious – preconscious – conscious. Censorship keeps ideas associated with drives (thoughts, images, memories) in the unconscious - this process has been called primary repression. Repression protects us from everything that can cause fear, anxiety or pangs of conscience.

Freud gave the following metaphorical description of censorship: " On the threshold between both rooms there is a guard on duty who examines each mental movement separately, censors it and does not let him into the living room if he does not like it» .

Some “forbidden” content of the unconscious still reaches consciousness, but then returns back again - it is repressed. This process is called actual repression or simply repression. The essence of repression is the removal and retention outside of consciousness of certain mental contents. Repression is especially evident in the fact that we practically do not remember the events of the first years of life. Everything that impressed us early childhood, has sunk into the river of the unconscious - we cannot revive the first experiences of our own free will. Our will and our mind are powerless before the power of the unconscious.

As adults, we continue to use repression at every opportunity. How often do we “painfully” try to remember the names and surnames of people we know well, but are somehow unpleasant to us. We also often sincerely forget about things that are important but not interesting to us. Finally, we deny anything that might harm our self-esteem. The last manifestation of repression is well reflected in the Russian proverb: in someone else’s eye I will see a speck, but in my own I will not notice a log.

A more complex result of repression is various mental and psychosomatic diseases. Using the example of hysteria, Freud showed that unconscious aspirations and affects can turn into bodily symptoms, moving away from their original cause ( conversion mechanism). For example, forbidden sexual desires may not be realized, but experienced as pain in the abdomen or genitals.

Freud noted: " Every time we encounter a symptom, we can conclude that the patient has certain unconscious processes that contain the meaning of the symptom» .

In other words, often a symptom replaces something that did not materialize due to repression. Freud points out that symptoms have the purpose of either satisfaction (symbolic fulfillment of desires) or protection from it. In this regard, the task of psychoanalytic treatment is formulated as the transformation of the entire pathogenic unconscious into the conscious. So some of unconscious derivatives(thoughts, actions, emotions) can reach consciousness in a disguised form, as a result of which a symptom is detected, but its true meaning remains unclear.

The bulk of unconscious ideas, encountering the second barrier of censorship, returns to the unconscious, avoiding the possibility of being perceived. Freud emphasized that the terms he proposed have a purely heuristic meaning and denote the basic systems psyche.

Dream interpretation

The interpretation of dreams is the royal road to knowledge of the unconscious in mental life.

Z. Freud

On October 23, 1896, Jacob Freud died. The loss of his father, “the most important loss in a man’s life,” had an extremely strong effect on Sigmund’s experiences and creativity. He recalled: “ In some unknown way, my father's death affected me deeply. I thought highly of him and understood him completely. With his death his time had expired, but inside me this tragic event reawakened all my early feelings» .

In the summer of 1897, Sigmund Freud began to implement a risky plan - analysis of one's own unconscious. Since Freud was a pioneer in this field, he had nowhere to wait for help. He was driven by the need to reach the truth at any cost. Freud later came to the conclusion that psychoanalysis could be mastered by people who used it primarily on themselves - in the study of their personality, and any person "who is honest, quite normal and dreams a lot" can achieve a lot in self-analysis.

In self-analysis, Freud used various methods. Correspondence with close people and friends played an important role in it. For example, researchers consider Freud's letters to Fliess as a form of individual analysis, where Fliess was the analyst and Freud the analyzed. But, of course, he played a decisive role dream analysis. In the course of interpreting his own dreams, Freud discovered what is now called Oedipus complex. By analyzing the dreams of his patients, Freud became convinced that this phenomenon was universal for all people. Additional illustrations in support of Freud's hypothesis were the plots of the legend of Oedipus and the tragedy of Hamlet.

Introspection accompanied Freud's work on one of his most famous works « Dream interpretation » (1895–1899). This book is called "an intellectual adventure leading to the discovery of the deepest secrets of the unconscious." Freud himself admitted: “ An insight like this only comes to a person once in a lifetime.» .

Before Freud, scientists from various fields - philosophy, theology, medicine - argued about dreams and their meaning for humans. However, there was no one generally accepted theory of dreams on which to rely.

At the same time, people have always attached special meaning to dreams. Even in ancient times, oracles and soothsayers predicted the future from dreams and were held in high esteem. At the same time, dreams were understood symbolically - as “encrypted” messages from the gods. For example, in the Old Testament we find a symbolic interpretation of the dream of the Egyptian pharaoh: “ After two years, Pharaoh dreamed: here he was standing by the river. And behold, seven cows came out of the river, good views and fat in flesh, and grazed among the reeds. But after them, seven other cows, thin in appearance and skinny in flesh, came out and stood near those cows on the bank of the river. And the cows that were thin in appearance and lean in flesh ate up the seven cows that were good in appearance and fat. And Pharaoh woke up". Joseph interpreted the “seven fat cows” to mean a bountiful harvest for seven years, followed by an equally long period of crop failure. He predicted a famine and advised Pharaoh to store grain for seven years, a time of prosperity and abundance.

Another historical example of the symbolic interpretation of a dream is the case of Alexander the Great. During the siege of the city of Tire, Alexander, annoyed by the stubborn resistance of the townspeople, saw in a dream a satyr dancing on his shield. The interpreter divided the key word of the dream into two parts - “sa” and “tyros” - meaning “Your Tyre”. In the morning the city was taken.

Before Freud, the starting point for dream interpretation was its explicit(manifest) content- everything that directly emerges in the memory of a waking person in the form of images, conflicting feelings or sensations. This content in ancient times was explained by divine revelation, later - by a mechanical memory of the current day or organically determined sensations. Freud declared the dream picture, so fascinating to the dreamer, insignificant. He saw in a dream the main means of proving the existence of the unconscious.

Using the example of his famous dream “about the injection of Irma” (July 23–24, 1895), Freud first showed how a seemingly absurd dream can express an unconscious desire, aggravated in connection with recent life events and impressions (in the dream, a young patient complains to Freud about pain in the throat, stomach. Examining the girl, doctors find that she has a serious illness, which is supposedly a consequence of an injection of propyl given to her by Freud’s friend).

Irma, consisting of friendly relations with the Freud family, suffered from hysterical fear and somatic symptoms. Her treatment was interrupted without success. The dream seemed to complete this situation in the way Freud needed. He wrote: " The dream freed me from responsibility for Irma’s well-being, reducing the latter to other moments. It created exactly the situation I wanted; its content is thus the fulfillment of desire» .

So Freud introduced a new term - hidden, or latent, dream content. He proposed his own theory of dreams - wish fulfillment theory, according to which the latent content of a dream includes wish fulfillment (1900) or, as Freud later noted, “an attempt at wish fulfillment” (1925). Thus, the dream represents(hidden) exercise of suppressed(repressed) desires.

The truth will set you free.

Z. Freud

Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis became the historical event that radically changed people's ideas about themselves. The emergence of depth psychology, which openly declared the dominance of drives and the existence of infantile sexuality, was met with violent indignation from the conservative-minded public at the beginning of the 20th century. The period of active resistance to psychoanalytic knowledge, fortunately, did not last long and quite soon gave way to a stage of growing interest in it. To date, psychoanalytic ideas have become an integral part of human culture and have found application in almost all spheres of social life. At the same time, due to a number of historical and psychological reasons, the name of Freud remains shrouded in a trail of uncertainty. Common ideas about psychoanalysis are for the most part reduced to simplified and very far from the truth cliches, causing contradictory, and in some cases, unreasonably negative attitudes from people.

Defining what is psychoanalysis, Z. Freud pointed out that it simultaneously hides: 1) a method of studying mental processes that are inaccessible to ordinary understanding; 2) method of treating neuroses; 3) a number of psychological theories that arose as a result. The idea of creating a general psychological concept (metapsychology), revealing the basic patterns of human mental life in normal and pathological conditions, never left Freud. As a result of the implementation of this plan, the basic principles of classical psychoanalysis were developed, constituting the theoretical and methodological basis for all subsequent psychoanalytic schools.

The distinctive feature of psychoanalysis has always been close connection between theory and practice. Psychoanalysis originated as a method of treating neuroses and developed as a doctrine of unconscious processes, on the foundation of which a scientific and practical system gradually formed, aimed at solving a variety of social problems. In modern psychoanalysis, three interrelated directions are clearly distinguished: psychoanalytic theory, which forms the basis for various practical approaches, clinical psychoanalysis, focused on providing psychological and psychotherapeutic assistance in case of personal difficulties or neuropsychic disorders, and applied psychoanalysis, aimed at analyzing cultural phenomena and solving social problems.

At this stage of development, psychoanalysis is no longer a monolithic entity, uniting many subsystems within the framework of a general methodology.

In this regard, two main paradigms are distinguished: classical (orthodox) psychoanalysis, consistently developing the ideas proposed by Freud, and modern (heterodox) psychoanalysis, complementing the classical approach with new original concepts and methods. It is not possible to list all modern psychoanalytic theories. Within the framework of the general outline, psychoanalytic schools are distinguished that place emphasis on certain theoretical positions or technical aspects, for example, the Kleinian tradition, the school of Anna Freud, the theory of object relations, ego psychology, Lacanian structural psychoanalysis and others.

The listed features of the subject being studied are most fully covered in the specialized literature, among which a two-volume book occupies a special place H. Thome and H. Kächele “Modern psychoanalysis”(literal translation from German is “Textbook of Psychoanalytic Therapy”). This work is a systematic guide to the use of the theory and methodology of psychoanalysis by practicing psychotherapists. For all its depth and content, the book by Thome and Kaechele, like many other psychoanalytic publications, is aimed at specialists with thorough professional training, but for an untrained reader it is quite difficult, and in some cases simply impossible, to benefit from such literature due to the expressed specificity of the latter.

The second chapter of the second part reveals the principles and features of the organization of individual forms of clinical psychoanalysis using the example of two main options: classical technique and modern psychoanalytic therapy. Practice shows that psychoanalysts, initially focused on individual work with the patient, are beginning to increasingly recognize the importance of couples counseling and family psychotherapy. This relatively new application of psychoanalysis became relevant in the 1960s and 1970s due to the emerging trend of a crisis in the traditional patriarchal family model. Currently, relationship therapy is in demand by society and can be considered as expanding the analyst’s capabilities in solving therapeutic problems.

Unfortunately, due to the limited volume of the book, it was not possible to cover all modern psychoanalytic schools, including the Jungian movement, structural psychoanalysis of J. Lacan, group analysis and others. These approaches are widely represented in the literature and deserve separate study. This manual solved the specific problem of describing the current state of the classical tradition of psychoanalysis. I would like to hope that the psychoanalytic ideas discussed will be useful both for understanding the readers’ own life experience and for increasing the level of their professional competence.

E. V. Zmanovskaya

Part 1
Psychoanalysis as metapsychology

Chapter 1
Basic concepts of psychoanalysis by Sigmund Freud

Freud, hypnosis and free association

And a solver of riddles, and a powerful king.

Sophocles "Oedipus the King"

For a long time, what we call psychoanalysis was the creation of one man - Sigmund Freud. Psychoanalysis, like a mirror, reflected both Freud's personality and his time.

On the other hand, probably due to his father's liberal nature, Freud grew up without a deep belief in God. Early reading of the Bible had an intellectual rather than a religious effect on the boy. More significant for the development of Freud’s personality were the majestic images of historical characters: Hanniball, Socrates, Oedipus, Moses, Leonardo da Vinci... Freud seemed to have absorbed the energy, wisdom and courage of these heroes. The divine passion for knowledge led him to the road of the Hero - the road of self-knowledge.

The Viennese physician Joseph Breuer (1842–1945), with whom Freud was friends and collaborated for many years, was another person involved in the birth of the new science. Breuer gave psychoanalysis cathartic method and the very first clinical example - the case of Anna O.(Bertha Pappenheim).

For a year, Breuer patiently observed this patient. Thanks to his insight and talent, a new method appeared in psychotherapy, which Breuer called cathartic and which is still used successfully today.

The case of Anna O. made a special impression on Freud. He became more and more interested the idea that certain disorders have a psychogenic origin, such as symptoms of hysteria. According to Freud, hidden thoughts and experiences give rise to internal struggles and painful symptoms. All this meant that no matter how unknown the neurological basis of the disease, its symptoms themselves could be eliminated by mental ideas alone. And this, in turn, opened the door to psychology for doctors.

Since December 1887, Freud increasingly begins to use hypnotic suggestion and the cathartic method in his work with patients - the patient’s memories in a state of hypnotic suggestion. However, Freud, like other doctors, was not always able to immerse the patient deeply enough in hypnosis. In addition, hypnotic suggestion brought relief to the patient for a very short period of time. One way or another, expressed dissatisfaction with the “effectiveness” of hypnosis prompted Freud to make adjustments to the generally accepted treatment method. Freud relied more and more on his patients' memories. At the same time, Freud noted that therapeutic improvement depends from the personal relationship between therapist and patient.

Ernest Jones, Freud's colleague, describes his work this way: " He asked the patient, lying on the couch with her eyes closed, to concentrate her attention on a specific symptom and try to recall in her memory all the memories that could shed light on its origin. When the patient did not succeed, Freud usually pressed his hand on her forehead and made a suggestion that now some thoughts or memories would undoubtedly come to her <…> Freud gave strict instructions to ignore any criticism and express any thought, even if it seems irrelevant, of little importance or too unpleasant» .

The free association method marked the birth of a new approach to mental disorders and human mental life in general. In 1896, in one of his works, Freud first used the term revolutionary at that time - psychoanalysis, meaning by this both a method for studying mental processes and a new method for treating neuroses. Free associations have truly become free.

Depths of the unconscious (topographic model)

The mental life of a person is like an iceberg, only a small part of which rises above the water and is conscious of us.

Z. Freud

Thus, adjective "unconscious" denotes that mental content that is inaccessible to awareness in general or at the moment. First of all, the unconscious includes various forms of instinctive impulses, drives, unconscious ideas and memories, affects and fantasies. Children's desires are also widely represented in the unconscious. They create a strong motivation to seek pleasure without taking into account the requirements of reality and common sense. As a noun term " unconscious" means one of the dynamic systems described by Freud in his early topographic theory of the mental apparatus. The term “topographic” comes from the ancient Greek language and is translated as “the relative location and outline of individual spatial areas.” With the help of a topographical model, Freud sought to determine the location of mental phenomena in relation to consciousness.

Freud believed that most mental content and mental activity, reflecting instinctual drives, were never conscious and remain so throughout a person's life. Some unconscious ideas can move into the sphere of consciousness, that is, we become aware of them under certain conditions. Finally, some part of the unconscious content appears to us in a disguised form, “breaking through” in the form of erroneous actions, slips of the tongue, dreams, incoherent thoughts, and painful symptoms.

Along with the metapsychology of Freud and his followers, the book presents an analysis of modern schools of psychoanalysis and describes the basic principles of clinical psychoanalysis and family psychotherapy. The deep aspects of group interaction, charismatic leadership, destructive cults, as well as the psychological effects of the media are revealed. Particular attention is paid to unconscious fantasies and hidden motives of people's behavior.

The book is addressed to psychologists, doctors, teachers, sociologists, representatives of related specialties, as well as students of specialized faculties of higher educational institutions.

Publisher: Peter, Series: Masters of Psychology, 2011

ISBN 978-5-49807-629-4

Number of pages: 288.

Contents of the book “Modern psychoanalysis. Theory and practice":

7 Preface
12 Part 1. Psychoanalysis as metapsychology
12 Chapter 1. Basic concepts of psychoanalysis by Sigmund Freud
- 12 Freud, hypnosis and free association
- 14 Depths of the unconscious (topographic model)
- 17 Dream interpretation
- 23 Attractions and their fate
- 27 Stages of psychosexual development
- 32 Narcissism theory
- 36 Self and It (structural model)
41 Chapter 2. Psychoanalysis of culture and society
- 41 Sigmund Freud on the origins of culture and religion
- 46 Mass psychology
- 50 Anti-drive culture
- 56 Psychoanalysis of literature and art
- 61 Aggression and the desire for superiority in the works of Alfred Adler
- 64 The Collective Unconscious of Carl Jung
- 69 Otto Rank's Hero's Journey
- 73 Psychoanalysis, Marxism and Wilhelm Reich
- 78 Social Psychoanalysis by Harry Sullivan and Erich Fromm
88 Part 2. Theory and practice of clinical psychoanalysis
88 Chapter 3. Modern schools of psychoanalysis
- 88 Psychoanalysis as a developing system
- 91 Kleinian direction
- 98 Object Relations Theory
- 99 D. Winnicott's concept of internal reality
- 104 Clinical and experimental studies by Rene Spitz
- 106 John Bowlby's theory of emotional attachment
- 108 Margaret Mahler's separation-individuation theory
- 112 Anna Freud School
- 118 Ego psychology
- 119 Epigenetic theory by Erik Erikson
- 126 Ego psychology and the problem of adaptation in the works of Heinz Hartmann
- 128 The Psychology of the Self by Heinz Kohut
- 132 Integrated Approach by Otto Kernberg
137 Chapter 4. Psychoanalytic psychotherapy
- 137 Psychoanalysis as a method of treating neuroses
- 146 Transference, resistance and countertransference
- 154 Organization and technique of psychoanalytic psychotherapy
- 158 Psychoanalytic family therapy
174 Part 3. Applied psychoanalysis
174 Chapter 5. Psychoanalysis of large and small groups
- 174 Basic concepts of applied psychoanalysis
- 187 The phenomenon of group culture
- 198 Mythodesign
- 208 Charismatic leader
- 212 Motivational analysis
221 Chapter 6. Psychoanalytic ideas in advertising
- 221 Beyond the reality principle
- 228 Technologies of deep advertising impact
- 241 Symbolic content of advertising images
250 Applications
250 APPENDIX TO PART 1. Dated list of psychoanalytic works of S. Freud
254 APPENDIX TO PART 2
- 254 Diagnostic interview
- 255 Structured interview
- 257 Clinical and psychological study of married couples
264 APPENDIX TO PART 3. Dictionary of symbols
274 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Preface

The truth will set you free.

Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis became the historical event that radically changed people's ideas about themselves. The emergence of depth psychology, which openly declared the dominance of drives and the existence of infantile sexuality, was met with violent indignation from the conservative-minded public at the beginning of the 20th century. The period of active resistance to psychoanalytic knowledge, fortunately, did not last long and quite soon gave way to a stage of growing interest in it. To date, psychoanalytic ideas have become an integral part of human culture and have found application in almost all spheres of social life. At the same time, due to a number of historical and psychological reasons, the name of Freud remains shrouded in a trail of uncertainty. Common ideas about psychoanalysis are for the most part reduced to simplified and very far from the truth cliches, causing contradictory, and in some cases, unreasonably negative attitudes from people.

Defining what is psychoanalysis, Z. Freud pointed out that it simultaneously hides: 1) a method of studying mental processes that are inaccessible to ordinary understanding; 2) method of treating neuroses; 3) a number of psychological theories that arose as a result. The idea of creating a general psychological concept (metapsychology), revealing the basic patterns of human mental life in normal and pathological conditions, never left Freud. As a result of the implementation of this plan, the basic principles of classical psychoanalysis were developed, constituting the theoretical and methodological basis for all subsequent psychoanalytic schools.

The second chapter of the second part reveals the principles and features of the organization of individual forms of clinical psychoanalysis using the example of two main options: classical technique and modern psychoanalytic therapy. Practice shows that psychoanalysts, initially focused on individual work with the patient, are beginning to increasingly recognize the importance of couples counseling and family psychotherapy. This relatively new application of psychoanalysis became relevant in the 1960s and 1970s due to the emerging trend of a crisis in the traditional patriarchal family model. Currently, relationship therapy is in demand by society and can be considered as expanding the analyst’s capabilities in solving therapeutic problems.

Unfortunately, due to the limited volume of the book, it was not possible to cover all modern psychoanalytic schools, including the Jungian movement, structural psychoanalysis of J. Lacan, group analysis and others. These approaches are widely represented in the literature and deserve separate study. This manual solved the specific problem of describing the current state of the classical tradition of psychoanalysis. I would like to hope that the psychoanalytic ideas discussed will be useful both for understanding the readers’ own life experience and for increasing the level of their professional competence.

E. V. Zmanovskaya

Part 1 Psychoanalysis as metapsychology

Chapter 1 Basic concepts of psychoanalysis by Sigmund Freud

Freud, hypnosis and free association

And a solver of riddles, and a powerful king.

Sophocles "Oedipus the King"

For a long time, what we call psychoanalysis was the creation of one man - Sigmund Freud. Psychoanalysis, like a mirror, reflected both Freud's personality and his time.

On the other hand, probably due to his father's liberal nature, Freud grew up without a deep belief in God. Early reading of the Bible had an intellectual rather than a religious effect on the boy. More significant for the development of Freud’s personality were the majestic images of historical characters: Hanniball, Socrates, Oedipus, Moses, Leonardo da Vinci... Freud seemed to have absorbed the energy, wisdom and courage of these heroes. The divine passion for knowledge led him to the road of the Hero - the road of self-knowledge.

Since December 1887, Freud increasingly begins to use hypnotic suggestion and the cathartic method in his work with patients - the patient’s memories in a state of hypnotic suggestion. However, Freud, like other doctors, was not always able to immerse the patient deeply enough in hypnosis. In addition, hypnotic suggestion brought relief to the patient for a very short period of time. One way or another, expressed dissatisfaction with the “effectiveness” of hypnosis prompted Freud to make adjustments to the generally accepted treatment method. Freud relied more and more on his patients' memories. At the same time, Freud noted that therapeutic improvement depends from the personal relationship between therapist and patient.

Ernest Jones, Freud's colleague, describes his work this way: " He asked the patient, lying on the couch with her eyes closed, to concentrate her attention on a specific symptom and try to recall in her memory all the memories that could shed light on its origin. When the patient did not succeed, Freud usually pressed his hand on her forehead and made a suggestion that now some thoughts or memories would undoubtedly come to her<…> Freud gave strict instructions to ignore any criticism and express any thought, even if it seems irrelevant, of little importance or too unpleasant» .

Depths of the unconscious (topographic model)

The mental life of a person is like an iceberg, only a small part of which rises above the water and is conscious of us.

Some “forbidden” content of the unconscious still reaches consciousness, but then returns back again - it is repressed. This process is called actual repression or simply repression. The essence of repression is the removal and retention outside of consciousness of certain mental contents. Repression is especially evident in the fact that we practically do not remember the events of the first years of life. Everything that impressed us in early childhood has sunk into the river of the unconscious - we cannot revive our first experiences of our own free will. Our will and our mind are powerless before the power of the unconscious.

Freud noted: " Every time we encounter a symptom, we can conclude that the patient has certain unconscious processes that contain the meaning of the symptom» .

Dream interpretation

The interpretation of dreams is the royal road to knowledge of the unconscious in mental life.

At the same time, people have always attached special meaning to dreams. Even in ancient times, oracles and soothsayers predicted the future from dreams and were held in high esteem. At the same time, dreams were understood symbolically - as “encrypted” messages from the gods. For example, in the Old Testament we find a symbolic interpretation of the dream of the Egyptian pharaoh: “ After two years, Pharaoh dreamed: here he was standing by the river. And behold, seven cows, good in appearance and fat in flesh, came out of the river and grazed among the reeds. But after them, seven other cows, thin in appearance and skinny in flesh, came out and stood near those cows on the bank of the river. And the cows that were thin in appearance and lean in flesh ate up the seven cows that were good in appearance and fat. And Pharaoh woke up". Joseph interpreted the “seven fat cows” to mean a bountiful harvest for seven years, followed by an equally long period of crop failure. He predicted a famine and advised Pharaoh to store grain for seven years, a time of prosperity and abundance.

Irma, who was on friendly terms with Freud's family, suffered from hysterical anxiety and somatic symptoms. Her treatment was interrupted without success. The dream seemed to complete this situation in the way Freud needed. He wrote: " The dream freed me from responsibility for Irma’s well-being, reducing the latter to other moments. It created exactly the situation I wanted; its content is thus the fulfillment of desire» .

In The Interpretation of Dreams, Freud writes: In a dream, two psychic forces play the most prominent role, of which one forms the desires that appear in the dream, the other performs the functions of censorship and, thanks to this censorship, contributes to the distortion of this desire» .

Dreams in which unconscious desires are directly fulfilled are common in children, but are quite rare in adults. So, if a child dreams of an interesting journey, then he directly makes it in his sleep. The dream of an adult resembles a rebus, in the elements of which “unconscious thoughts” are encrypted. Using the example of his own dreams, Freud shows what varied and intricate forms his simple desire to visit Rome took.

To analyze the true (hidden) meaning of a dream, Freud proposed using the method of free association. To do this, you need to pay attention to the details of the dream and remember everything that each of them entails. Any criticism at the moment of birth of associations should be blocked. Many associations, intersecting, form a stable core, behind which an unconscious idea or unconscious desire is clearly discernible.

In The Interpretation of Dreams, Freud gives an answer to the question: why do people dream, and gives a list of the sources of dreams he identified: a) fresh and neutral material, which includes daytime impressions, and what was not completed during the day, the so-called daytime residues ; b) significant experiences, shocks, thoughts unresolved during life; c) infantile material - childhood memories and desires, regarding which memory in the waking state is powerless; d) somatic processes - external and internal sensations from the senses (pain, hunger, thirst).

In any case, the dream stems from the near or distant past. The explicit content of a dream is mainly associated with recent impressions - the events of the previous day. The true meaning of a dream is determined by earlier experiences. Thus, the experience of intense fear in a dream, according to Freud, is caused by repressed sexual desires, and less often by a physical illness (for example, lung disease). Recurring dreams most often indicate their “childhood origin.” Thus, during sleep, the most complex mental work occurs. Daytime impressions (daytime remnants) are processed, strengthened by unconscious desires and past experiences, “ennobled” by censorship and sent to consciousness in the form of a perceived picture. Freud called this process the work of the dream to transform the latent content of the dream into the explicit.

Dreams are incomprehensible to the dreamer. According to Freud, this occurs due to the fact that the dream, “fearing” censorship, distorts itself. Freud described in detail dream mechanisms:

1. Freud names the first distorting mechanism thickening, as a result of which dream elements that have something in common appear as a single whole. Therefore, unlike daytime thoughts, dreams are fragmentary and inconsistent.

This mechanism reveals the tendency of people to mistake a part for the whole. For example, a gift given to a loved one or an item that belongs to him is honored and cherished as if it represents the whole of that person. People we dream about often combine the features of two or more faces in one image. For example, we dream of a work colleague, but at the same time we feel that this is a completely different person - our former classmate in the guise of a current colleague. Freud calls this phenomenon the “collective image” or “collective personality.” Thus, in the dream, the most diverse ideas are mixed and averaged on the basis of subtle similarities between them. According to Freud, all dreams, without exception, certainly depict the dreamer himself.

2. No less often in dreams a mechanism such as bias. It represents a shift in emphasis up to a complete revaluation of all mental values. Reversal, transformation into the opposite, is the most common phenomenon in dreams. In this case, the important becomes unimportant, and some hidden element is replaced by something distant, that is, a hint. For example, in a situation of exciting anticipation of some important event, an adult is likely to dream about a school exam. To illustrate the shift, Freud recalls an anecdote in which a village blacksmith committed a crime punishable by death. The court decided that the guilt should be expiated, but since there were no more blacksmiths in the village and he was irreplaceable, and, on the contrary, there were three tailors, one of them was hanged instead of the blacksmith.

While ideas undergo various kinds of transformations, affects remain unchanged. Therefore, a useful question on the way to interpreting a dream may be: what feelings gave rise to this dream or with what feeling did the dreamer wake up?

3. The third mechanism of sleep formation – figurativeness. Freud speaks of a kind of regression, when in a dream an abstract idea descends to a lower sensory level. Thoughts are distorted by the fact that they are translated primarily into visual images. The dream becomes like a series of pictures with a broken logical connection. Logical connection is conveyed through simultaneity. The things we dream about at the same time are closely related to each other. If the plots go one after another, there is a cause-and-effect relationship between such parts.

4. Another possibility of dream distortion is provided by use of symbols. They are a way of indirect representation. In some cases the correspondence between a symbol and what it stands for is obvious; in others it is more subtle.

In dreams, symbols are used to a limited extent. Behind them are hidden: parents and other relatives, birth, death, nudity. For early Freud, most symbolic images were sexual in nature and associated with the body. For example, all elongated objects, as well as hats and ties, symbolized male genitalia; on the contrary, hollow containers - vessels, bags, caves, houses - were symbols female body; rhythmic ascent up the stairs indicated sexual intercourse; the king and queen portrayed mainly the parents of the sleeping person, and the prince or princess - himself. Freud later expanded his understanding of symbolism beyond sexuality.

Symbols appear in dreams as so-called silent elements; the individual himself is unable to provide associations for them. However, Freud never insisted that any image must necessarily have a symbolic or sexual meaning; after all, “a cigar can just be a cigar.”

Freud initially avoided interpreting symbols because they seemed to him a kind of step back, like compiling a dream book. But later he recognized that, based on each person's unconscious knowledge of the connection between a symbol and what it stands for, hidden relationships between things can be revealed. " Symbolism is perhaps the most amazing chapter in the doctrine of dreams. First of all, since the symbols are established translations<…> under certain circumstances they allow us to interpret dreams without asking the dreamer, who still does not understand anything about symbols» .

Knowing, on the one hand, the symbols of a dream, and on the other, the personality of the dreamer, the conditions in which he lives, and the impressions from which dreams are composed, one can interpret the dream immediately, as if translating it from a sheet of paper. However, the interpretation of "permanent" symbols should not exclude or replace free associations. Only when no association can be made to the corresponding part of the dream can one start from general symbols.

5. The last task of dream work is recycling. This means that the true content of the dream is further distorted in the process of its comprehension and retelling. Trying to remember and understand a dream, we “complete” it into a logically coherent story or picture. At the same time, we exclude the most incomprehensible elements from the dream as unnecessary and, conversely, where it seems necessary, we make insertions.

Every person has probably noticed the impact of this recycling themselves. Waking up from a dream at night, we continue to believe in its reality for some time, remembering the confusing events without any surprise. After complete awakening, this chaos of the dream is transformed into a clear image or structure, losing a lot. The gaps are filled, connecting parts are inserted, revealing the dream in a new form.

So, a dream is a full-fledged mental act, the driving force of which is a desire striving for satisfaction. In a dream, true thoughts and desires appear in a distorted form. Distortions stem from the influence of internal censorship, which decides what is good and what is bad and unworthy. Through the analysis of his own dreams, Freud made an important discovery: dreams primarily represent the child's unconscious. In other words, dream life stems from the “remnants of the prehistoric period” - the ages of one to three years, the events of which are usually forgotten. Freud discovered that the so-called amnesia of childhood can be overcome in a surprising way through the analysis of dreams and related associations.

Freud called the decomposition of the manifest dream into latent contents dream interpretation. This means the opposite of the dream work. When analyzing dreams, you can go in different ways: examine daytime remnants and select associations for them; you can analyze the most striking moments or, on the contrary, pay attention to those elements that change the most during repetitions. In any case, the purpose of interpretation is associations that lead the dreamer into the past. When asked whether every dream can be interpreted, Freud answered in the negative.

Analyzing dreams, Freud noticed that some of them occur and are repeated in most people. Freud called them typical dreams. Examples include dreams of flying, falling, nakedness, or feeling “tied up.” Freud saw the sources of these dreams in infantile sexuality. For example, a recurring dream of nudity may reveal a child's exhibitionistic tendencies, since young children are known to derive pleasure from nudity.

Dreams about the death of loved ones, which also occur very often and in a typical form, according to Freud, indicate a once-existing but repressed desire for the death of one of the relatives. A child’s ideas about death are far from the real situation. For a small child, “to die” means “to leave, not to disturb.” Many children have good reasons for wanting the absence of a brother, sister or parent. Freud made the subtle observation that dreams of the death of parents in most cases concern a parent of the same sex as the dreamer. A man more often dreams about the death of his father, a woman about her mother. Freud explained this circumstance by the presence of unconscious hostility towards a parent of the same sex.

In exam dreams, Freud found a connection with indelible memories of punishment for childhood misdeeds, which is associated with strict examinations. On the other hand, Freud notes that dreams of exams are observed only in those who have passed them, and never in those who have failed them. Since dreams about failing an exam are repeated before an important event and cause fear in the dreamer, according to Freud, they can play a consoling role - “this has already happened, and the fear was in vain.”

If the essence of a dream is the fulfillment of a wish, then why does a person have painful nightmares, dreams of punishment or misfortune? Freud says that hidden benefits can be found in this too. For example, if a person again and again sees scenes of a disaster experienced in a dream, this may be due to his need to retroactively cope with a painful situation and change past events for the better.

Freud defended the view that the only function of dreams is to eliminate, through imaginary satisfaction, the tension of unsatisfied needs remaining from the day. In this sense, “the dream is the guardian of sleep, not its violator.” Thanks to “hallucinatory wish fulfillment”, it is ensured restful sleep dreamer

Later, in the course of numerous experimental studies, it was found that about 20% of the time of night sleep occurs in the so-called dream phases. Depriving a person of sleep in general or phases of dreams leads to the appearance of a psychotic state, while interruption of phases devoid of dreams only leads to significant fatigue. Thus, dreams have clear psychotherapeutic functions. Freud himself, at the end of his life, described the doctrine of dreams as “a turning point in the history of psychoanalysis,” thanks to which the latter “made a step from the psychotherapeutic method to depth psychology.” After Freud's death, the dream theory was supplemented and improved by his followers. Modern researchers view dreams more broadly - as a phenomenon woven into the general life situation of the dreamer’s personality.

Attractions and their fate

Drives are mythical creatures, majestic in their uncertainty.

For a long time, psychoanalysis was reproached for “biologization.” Indeed, Freud's theory was initially biologically oriented and emphasized the primacy of instincts. When Freud spoke of instinct, he meant biologically inherited behavior characteristic of the species as a whole.

In a broad sense instinct- this is a rigid pattern of behavior that gradually unfolds over time and hardly changes throughout life. This pattern seems to be subordinated to a predetermined biological goal and tied to a specific external object. Modern psychological science recognizes and studies the instinctive foundations of human behavior, but emphasizes their fundamental difference from animal instincts: in humans they almost never appear in their pure form, since from the first minutes of life they are regulated by social conditions.

When asked whether there are inherited mental formations in humans similar to the instincts of animals, Freud answered positively. He recognized “inherited phylogenetic patterns” as an analogue of instincts, which we can judge by the so-called primary fantasies. First phantasms- these are certain unconscious structures that are not necessarily a consequence of events experienced by an individual, but are the result of the development of all humanity. These can be scenes of intrauterine life, cannibalism, castration, sexual intercourse between parents, seduction. Based on these innate structures, more complex fantasies are formed. So, some people have a fantasy that they witnessed intimate relationships their own parents, although they never actually saw it.

In early psychoanalytic theories, the term "instinct" was used in a broader sense - to describe the motivational forces of human behavior in general. But if instincts don't have direct meaning in a person’s life, what then underlies his behavior? To designate the internal motivational forces that determine human activity, Freud in 1905 proposed a new term - “ attractions"(in German version trieb- “instinct, push, impulse”). Over time, drive theory became one of the cornerstones of psychoanalysis.

Since modern psychoanalysis, which grew out of the ideas of Sigmund Freud, is a continuously developing system of theories and methods designed to reveal the most intimate aspects of human nature. Here is one of the first Russian publications that integrates the basic concepts of psychoanalysis and post-classical analytical approaches into the system of modern scientific and practical knowledge.

The book is addressed to psychologists, doctors, teachers, sociologists, representatives of related specialties, as well as students of specialized faculties of higher educational institutions.

Preface

Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis became the historical event that radically changed people's ideas about themselves. The emergence of depth psychology, which openly declared the dominance of drives and the existence of infantile sexuality, was met with violent indignation from the conservative-minded public at the beginning of the 20th century. The period of active resistance to psychoanalytic knowledge, fortunately, did not last long and quite soon gave way to a stage of growing interest in it. To date, psychoanalytic ideas have become an integral part of human culture and have found application in almost all spheres of social life. At the same time, due to a number of historical and psychological reasons, the name of Freud remains shrouded in a trail of uncertainty. Common ideas about psychoanalysis are for the most part reduced to simplified and very far from the truth cliches, causing contradictory, and in some cases, unreasonably negative attitudes from people.

Defining what is

psychoanalysis,

Z. Freud pointed out that it simultaneously hides: 1) a method of studying mental processes that are inaccessible to ordinary understanding; 2) method of treating neuroses; 3) a number of psychological theories that arose as a result. The idea of creating a general psychological concept

(metapsychology),

revealing the basic patterns of human mental life in normal and pathological conditions, never left Freud. As a result of the implementation of this plan, the basic principles of classical psychoanalysis were developed, constituting the theoretical and methodological basis for all subsequent psychoanalytic schools.

partially or completely unconscious aspects of people's mental life.

The distinctive feature of psychoanalysis has always been