Establishment of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Rus'. What was covered up by the Tatar-Mongol yoke? History of the Mongols from ancient times

The main reason for the dispute that arose around the size of the Mongol army lies in the fact that historians of the 13th-14th centuries, whose works should rightfully become the primary source, unanimously explained the unprecedented success of the nomads by overwhelming numbers. In particular, the Hungarian Dominican missionary Julian noted that the Mongols “have such a multitude of fighters that it can be divided into forty parts, and there is no power on earth that would be able to withstand one part of them.”

If the Italian traveler Giovanni del Plano Carpini writes that Kyiv was besieged by 600 thousand pagans, then the Hungarian historian Simon notes that 500 thousand Mongol-Tatar warriors invaded Hungary.

They also said that the Tatar horde occupied a space of twenty days' journey in length and fifteen in width, i.e. That is, it will take 70 days to get around it.

It’s probably time to write a few words about the term “Tatars”. In the bloody struggle for power over Mongolia, Genghis Khan inflicted a brutal defeat on the Mongolian Tatar tribe. In order to avoid revenge and ensure a peaceful future for their offspring, all the Tatars who turned out to be taller than the axle of the cart wheel were eliminated. From this we can conclude that the Tatars as an ethnic group ceased to exist by the beginning of the 13th century.

The cruelty of the decision made is quite understandable from the standpoint and moral principles of that era. The Tatars at one time, trampling all the laws of the steppe, violated hospitality and poisoned the father of Genghis Khan - Yesugei-baatur. Long before this, the Tatars, having betrayed the interests of the Mongol tribes, participated in the capture of the Mongol Khan Khabul by the Chinese, who executed him with sophisticated cruelty.

In general, the Tatars often acted as allies of the Chinese emperors.
It’s a paradox, but Asian and European peoples collectively called all Mongolian tribes Tatars. Ironically, it was under the name of the Tatar tribe they destroyed that the Mongols became known to the whole world.

Borrowing these figures, the mere mention of which makes one shiver, the authors of the three-volume “History of the Mongolian People's Republic” claim that 40 tumens of warriors went to the West.
Pre-revolutionary Russian historians tend to name mind-boggling numbers. In particular, N. M. Karamzin, the author of the first generalizing work on the history of Russia, writes in his “History of the Russian State”:

“Batiyev’s strength incomparably surpassed ours and was the only reason for his success. In vain do new historians talk about the superiority of the Mughals (Mongols) in military affairs: the ancient Russians, for many centuries fighting either with foreigners or with fellow citizens, were not inferior both in courage and in the art of exterminating people to any of the then European nations. But the squads of the Princes and the city did not want to unite, they acted especially, and in a very natural way could not resist half a million Batyev: for this conqueror constantly multiplied his army, adding to it the vanquished.”

S. M. Solovyov determines the size of the Mongol army at 300 thousand soldiers.

Military historian of the period Tsarist Russia, Lieutenant General M.I. Ivanin writes that the Mongol army initially consisted of 164 thousand people, but by the time of the invasion of Europe it had reached a grandiose figure of 600 thousand people. These included numerous detachments of prisoners performing technical and other auxiliary work.

Soviet historian V.V. Kargalov writes: “The figure of 300 thousand people, which was usually called by pre-revolutionary historians, is controversial and inflated. Some information that allows us to roughly judge the size of Batu’s army is contained in the “Collection of Chronicles” of the Persian historian Rashid ad-Din. The first volume of this extensive historical work provides a detailed list of the Mongol troops that remained after the death of Genghis Khan and were distributed among his heirs.

In total, the great Mongol Khan left “one hundred twenty-nine thousand people” to his sons, brothers and nephews. Rashid ad-Din not only determines the total number of Mongol troops, but also indicates which of the khans - the heirs of Chingns Khan - and how they received warriors under their subordination. Therefore, knowing which khans took part in Batu’s campaign, we can roughly determine the total number of Mongol warriors who were with them on the campaign: there were 40-50 thousand of them. It must be taken into account, however, that in the “Collection of Chronicles” we are talking only about the Mongol troops themselves, purebred Mongols, and, besides them, in the army of the Mongol khans there were many warriors from conquered countries. According to the Italian Plano Carpini, Batu’s warriors from the conquered peoples made up approximately ¾ of the army. Thus, the total number of the Mongol-Tatar army prepared for the campaign against the Russian principalities can be determined at 120-140 thousand people. This figure is confirmed by the following considerations. Usually, on campaigns, the khans, descendants of Genghis, commanded a “tumen,” that is, a detachment of 10 thousand horsemen. In Batu’s campaign against Rus', according to the testimony of Eastern historians, 12-14 “Genghisid” khans took part, who could lead 12-14 “tumens” (i.e. 120-140 thousand people).”

“Such a size of the Mongol-Tatar army is quite sufficient to explain the military successes of the conquerors. In the conditions XIII century When an army of several thousand people already represented a significant force, the army of more than a hundred thousand Mongol khans provided the conquerors with overwhelming superiority over the enemy. Let us remember, by the way, that the troops of the crusader knights, which united, essentially speaking, a significant part of the military forces of all the feudal states of Europe, never exceeded 100 thousand people. What forces could oppose the feudal principalities of North-Eastern Rus' to the hordes of Batu?”

Let's listen to the opinions of other researchers.

Danish historian L. de Hartog in his work “Genghis Khan - Ruler of the World” notes:
“Batu Khan’s army consisted of 50 thousand soldiers, the main forces of which went to the west. By order of Ogedei, the ranks of this army were replenished with additional units and detachments. It is believed that in the army of Batu Khan, which set out on the campaign, there were 120 thousand people, the majority of whom were representatives of the Turkic peoples, but the entire command was in the hands of purebred Mongols.”

N. Ts. Munkuev, based on his research, concludes:
“The eldest sons of all Mongols, including the owners of appanages, khan’s sons-in-law and khan’s wives, were sent on a campaign against Rus' and Europe. If we assume that the Mongol troops during this period consisted<…>out of 139 thousand units of five people, then, assuming that each family consisted of five people, the army of Batu and Subedei numbered about 139 thousand soldiers in its ranks.”

E. Khara-Davan in his book “Genghis Khan as a commander and his legacy,” first published in 1929 in Belgrade, but which has not lost its value to this day, writes that in the army of Batu Khan, which set off to conquer Rus', there were from 122 to 150 thousand people in the combat element.

In general, almost all Soviet historians unanimously believed that the figure of 120-150 thousand soldiers was the most realistic. This figure also found its way into the works of modern researchers.

Thus, A.V. Shishov in his work “One Hundred Great Military Leaders” notes that Batu Khan led 120-140 thousand people under his banners.

It seems that the reader will undoubtedly be interested in excerpts from one research work. A. M. Ankudinova and V. A. Lyakhov, who set out to prove (if not with facts, then with words) that the Mongols, only thanks to their numbers, were able to break the heroic resistance of the Russian people, write: “In the fall of 1236, the huge hordes of Batu, numbering about 300 thousand people fell on Volga Bulgaria. The Bulgars defended themselves courageously, but were overwhelmed by the enormous numerical superiority of the Mongol-Tatars. In the fall of 1237, Batu's troops reached the Russian borders.<…>Ryazan was taken only when there was no one left to defend it. All the soldiers led by Prince Yuri Igorevich died, all the inhabitants were killed. The Grand Duke of Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich, who did not respond to the call of the Ryazan princes to act together against the Mongol-Tatars, now found himself in a difficult situation. True, he used the time while Batu stayed on Ryazan land and gathered a significant army. Having won a victory near Kolomna, Batu moved towards Moscow... Despite the fact that the Mongols had an overwhelming numerical superiority, they were able to take Moscow in five days. The defenders of Vladimir inflicted significant damage on the Mongol-Tatars. But the enormous numerical superiority took its toll, and Vladimir fell. Batu's troops moved from Vladimir in three directions. The defenders of Pereyaslavl-Zalessky courageously met the Mongol-Tatar invaders. Over the course of five days, they repulsed several furious attacks by the enemy, who had many times superior forces. But the enormous numerical superiority of the Mongol-Tatars took its toll, and they broke into Pereyaslavl-Zalessky.”

I think it is useless and unnecessary to comment on what was quoted.

Historian J. Fennell asks: “How did the Tatars manage to defeat Rus' so easily and quickly?” and he himself answers: “It is necessary, of course, to take into account the size and extraordinary strength of the Tatar army. The conquerors undoubtedly had a numerical superiority over their opponents." However, he notes that it is incredibly difficult to even give the most approximate estimate of the number of Batu Khan’s troops and believes that the most likely figure is the one indicated by the historian V.V. Kargalov.
Buryat researcher Y. Khalbay in his book “Genghis Khan is a genius” provides the following data. Batu Khan's army consisted of 170 thousand people, of which 20 thousand Chinese were in
technical parts. However, he did not provide facts to prove these figures.

English historian J.J. Saunders, in his study “The Mongol Conquests,” indicates a figure of 150 thousand people.
If the “History of the USSR”, published in 1941, says that the Mongolian army consisted of 50 thousand soldiers, then the “History of Russia”, published six decades later, indicates a slightly different figure, but within acceptable limits - 70 thousand . Human.

In recent works on this topic, Russian researchers tend to put the figure at 60-70 thousand people. In particular, B.V. Sokolov in the book “One Hundred Great Wars” writes that Ryazan was besieged by a 60,000-strong Mongol army. Since Ryazan was the first Russian city located on the path of the Mongol troops, we can conclude that this is the number of all Batu Khan’s warriors.

Published in Russia in 2003, “History of the Fatherland” is the fruit of the joint work of a team of authors and indicates the figure of the Mongol army at 70 thousand soldiers.

G.V. Vernadsky, who wrote a major work on the history of Rus' during the era of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, writes that the core of the Mongol army probably amounted to 50 thousand soldiers. With the newly formed Turkic formations and various auxiliary troops, the total number could be 120 thousand and even more, but due to the huge territories to be controlled and garrisoned, during the invasion the strength of Batu's field army in his main campaign was hardly more than 50 thousand in each phase.

The famous scientist L. N. Gumilyov writes:

“The Mongol forces gathered for the western campaign turned out to be small. Of the 130 thousand soldiers they had, 60 thousand had to be sent to permanent service in China, another 40 thousand went to Persia to suppress the Muslims, and 10 thousand soldiers were constantly at headquarters. Thus, a corps of ten thousand remained for the campaign. Realizing its insufficiency, the Mongols carried out emergency mobilization. The eldest son from each family was taken into service.”

However, the total number of troops that went to the west hardly exceeded 30-40 thousand people. After all, when crossing several thousand kilometers, you cannot get by with one horse. Each warrior must have, in addition to a riding horse, also a pack horse. And for an attack, a war horse was necessary, because fighting on a tired or untrained horse is tantamount to suicide. Troops and horses were required to transport siege weapons. Consequently, there were at least 3-4 horses per rider, which means that a detachment of thirty thousand had to have at least 100 thousand horses. It is very difficult to feed such livestock when crossing the steppes. Carry provisions for people and fodder for large quantity It was impossible to take animals with us. That is why the figure of 30-40 thousand seems to be the most realistic estimate of the Mongol forces during the western campaign.

Despite the fact that Sergei Bodrov’s film “Mongol” caused great criticism in Mongolia, his film clearly showed the military art the ancient Mongols possessed, when a small cavalry detachment could defeat a huge army.

A.V. Venkov and S.V. Derkach in their joint work “Great Commanders and Their Battles” note that Batu Khan gathered 30 thousand people under his banners (4 thousand of them Mongols). These researchers could have borrowed this figure from I. Ya. Korostovets.
Experienced Russian diplomat I. Ya. Korostovets, who served in Mongolia during one of the most vulnerable periods of our history - in the 1910s. - in his grandiose study “From Genghis Khan to the Soviet Republic. Short story Mongolia, taking into account modern times, writes that Batu Khan’s invading army consisted of 30 thousand people.

Summarizing the above, we can conclude that historians name approximately three groups of figures: from 30 to 40 thousand, from 50 to 70 thousand and from 120 to 150 thousand. The fact that the Mongols, even having mobilized the conquered peoples, could not field an army of 150 thousand , already a fact. Despite the highest decree of Ogedei, it is unlikely that every family had the opportunity to send their eldest son to the West. After all, the campaigns of conquest had lasted for more than 30 years, and the Mongols’ human resources were already meager. After all, hiking affected every family to one degree or another. But an army of 30,000, with all its valor and heroism, could hardly have conquered several principalities in a dizzyingly short period of time.

In our opinion, taking into account the mobilization of the eldest sons and conquered peoples, there were from 40 to 50 thousand soldiers in Batu’s army.

Along the way, we criticize the prevailing opinions about the large number of Mongols who went on a campaign under the banner of the grandson of Chingisov, and about the hundreds of thousands of prisoners whom the conquerors allegedly led before them, due to the following historical facts:

Firstly, did the residents of Ryazan dare to enter into an open battle with the Mongols, if in fact there were more than 100 thousand of them? Why didn't they consider it prudent to sit outside the city walls and try to hold out the siege?
Secondly, why did the “guerrilla war” of only 1,700 warriors of Evpatiy Kolovrat alarm Batu Khan to such an extent that he decided to pause the offensive and first deal with the “troublemaker”? If Batu Khan had an army 100 times larger than Evpatiy’s army, he had hardly heard of such a commander. The fact that even 1,700 uncompromisingly minded patriots became a force to be reckoned with for the Mongols indicates that Batu Khan could not lead the “beloved darkness” under his banners.
Thirdly, the people of Kiev, contrary to the customs of war, put to death the ambassadors of Munke Khan, who came to the city demanding surrender. Only a side confident in its invincibility will dare to take such a step. This was the case in 1223 before the Battle of Kalka, when the Russian princes, confident in their strength, condemned the Mongol ambassadors to death. Anyone who does not believe in his own strength would never kill other people's ambassadors.
Fourthly, in 1241 the Mongols covered more than 460 km in Hungary in three incomplete days. Such examples are numerous. Is it possible to travel such a distance in such a short time with numerous prisoners and other non-combat equipment? But not only in Hungary, in general for the entire period of the campaign of 1237-1242. The advance of the Mongols was so rapid that they always won in time and appeared, like the god of war, where they were not expected at all, thereby bringing their victory closer. Moreover, not one of the great conquerors could have captured even an inch of land with an army whose ranks were replenished with motley and non-combatant elements.

A good example of this is Napoleon. Only the French brought him victories. And he did not win a single war, fighting with an army replenished with representatives of conquered peoples. What was the cost of the adventure in Russia - the so-called “invasion of twelve languages”.

The Mongols complemented the small numbers of their army with the perfection of military tactics and efficiency. The description of the Mongol tactics by the English historian Harold Lamb is of interest:

• “1. The kurultai, or main council, met at the headquarters of Kha-Khan. All senior military leaders were to attend it, with the exception of those who were given permission to remain in the active army. The emerging situation and the plan for the upcoming war were discussed there. Routes were chosen and various corps were formed
• 2. Spies were sent to the enemy guards and “tongues” were obtained.
• 3. The invasion of the enemy’s country was carried out by several armies in different directions. Each separate division or army corps (tumen) had its own commander, who moved with the army towards the intended goal. He was given complete freedom of action within the limits of the task given to him, with close communication through a courier with the headquarters of the supreme leader or orkhon.
• 4. When approaching significantly fortified cities, troops left a special corps to monitor them. Supplies were collected in the surrounding area and, if necessary, a temporary base was set up. The Mongols rarely simply placed a barrier in front of a well-fortified city; more often than not, one or two tumens began to invest and siege it, using prisoners and siege engines for this purpose, while the main forces continued to advance.
• 5. When a meeting in the field with an enemy army was foreseen, the Mongols usually adhered to one of the following two tactics: they either tried to attack the enemy by surprise, quickly concentrating the forces of several armies on the battlefield, as was the case with the Hungarians in 1241, or, if the enemy turned out to be vigilant and surprise could not be counted on; they directed their forces in such a way as to bypass one of the enemy flanks. This maneuver was called “tulugma,” or standard coverage.”

The Mongols strictly adhered to this tactic during their campaigns of conquest, including during the invasion of Rus' and European countries.

INFORMATION FOR TOURISTS

HISTORY OF MONGOLIA

The Mongols are one of the oldest nations and have a rich history dating back thousands of years. In 2006, Mongolia celebrates the 800th anniversary of the formation of the Mongolian state and the 840th anniversary of Genghis Khan.

PREHISTORIC PERIOD

Many millions of years ago, the territory of modern Mongolia was covered with thickets of ferns, and the climate was hot and humid. Dinosaurs lived on earth for 160 million years and died out during their heyday. The reasons for this phenomenon have not yet been precisely established and scientists have put forward different hypotheses.

Humanity learned about the existence of these giant animals only 150 years ago. Science knows several hundred species of dinosaurs. The most famous discovery of dinosaur remains belongs to an American scientific expedition led by R. Andrews, which was organized in the 20s of the last century in the Gobi Desert. Now this find is kept in the Local History Museum of the City of New York. Dinosaur bones found in Mongolia are also in museums in St. Petersburg and Warsaw. The exhibition of the Natural History Museum is one of the best in the world and has been exhibited in many countries.

On the territory of present-day Mongolia, ancestors appeared over 800 thousand years ago modern man. Homo Sapiens themselves lived here 40 thousand years ago. Researchers suggest that 20-25 thousand years ago there was a great migration from Central Asia to America through the Bering Strait.

NOMADS

On the banks of the Yellow River, the Chinese founded one of the first civilizations in human history and have had writing since ancient times. The written monuments of the Chinese talk a lot about nomads who constantly raided China. The Chinese called these foreigners “Hu,” which means “barbarians,” and divided them into “Xionghu,” the northern savages, and “Donghu,” the eastern savages. At that time, China was not a single state and consisted of several independent kingdoms, and the nomads existed in separate tribes and did not have a state system. Chinese
The kingdoms, fearing raids by nomadic tribes, built walls along the northern border of their territories. In 221 BC. The state of Qin was formed and thus for the first time the disparate kingdoms were united into one whole. The emperor of the Qing state, Shi Huangdi, united the numerous walls built by the kingdoms into one seamless system of defense against nomads. In order to break through the strong defense, the nomads united under the leadership of the Shanyu Mode and formed a strong state, which went down in history as the Xiongnu. Thus, in 209 BC. The first state system was established on the territory of present-day Mongolia. The question of the origin of the Xiongnu, whether they were Turks, Mongols or another nationality, remains controversial to this day. However, the states of the Seljuks, Xiongnu, Turks, Khitans, Avars, China, the Great Mongol Empire, the Golden Horde, the Ottoman Empire, the Timur Empire, as well as current states such as Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan are the direct successors of the first nomadic state of the Xiongnu. For about 400 years, the Xiongnu played an important historical role. Later, after the division into southern and northern Xiongnu, they were defeated by the Chinese and Donghu, and thus the Xiongnu state ceased to exist. The nomads, united against the Xiongnu, in 156 formed the most powerful state in Central Asia - Xianbi. At this time, the powerful Han dynasty ruled in China. In the 3rd century, the Toba separated from the Xianbi and subsequently captured Northern China. Later, Toba's descendants were assimilated by the Chinese. The descendants of the Donghu Rourans had strong troops and in the 5th century they conquered the territory from Harshar to Korea. They were the first to use the title of khan. Researchers believe that the Rourans were a Mongol tribe.

The Tang Dynasty in China was a time of cultural flourishing. Later, the Rourans were conquered by the Turks, and later, during the wars, they reached European territories. They are known in history as Avars. They owned the largest conquests made before the appearance of Genghis Khan. By the 7th century, the Turks had become the most powerful state in the world. During their campaigns they reached Asia Minor and became the ancestors of modern Turks. The Turkic state fell after numerous attacks by powerful states united against them. On the territory of the defeated Turkic state, the Uyghur state arose. The capital of the Uyghur state Karabalgas was discovered during excavations in the Orkhon River valley. In 840 they were defeated by the Kyrgyz, who reached them along the Yenisei River. The Kyrgyz ruled briefly in Central Asia and were driven out by the Mongol Khitan tribes to the Pamirs. Since then, only the Mongols began to rule on the territory of Mongolia. As they grew stronger, the Khitan gradually moved south from the Great Wall of China and during the development of present-day Beijing as the capital, they largely disappeared into the Chinese population and remained in Chinese history as the Liao Dynasty.

PERIOD OF THE GREAT MONGOL EMPIRE

In 924 Turkic tribes left the territory of present-day Mongolia, and the Mongols began to rule themselves. Apart from the brief period of Khitan rule, the Mongols could not form single state. TO XIII century on the territory of Mongolia there were many tribes, such as Naimans, Tatars, Khamag-Mongols, Keraits, Oniuds, Merkits, etc. After the Khamag-Mongol Khan Khabul, the Mongol tribes were without a leader until in 1189 his descendant Temujin was not proclaimed Khan of all Mongols and received the title Genghis Khan.

Temujin's first major military enterprise was the war against the Tatars, launched jointly with Togoril around 1200. The Tatars at that time had difficulty repelling the attacks of the Jin troops that entered their possessions. Taking advantage of the favorable situation, Temujin and Togoril inflicted a number of strong blows on the Tatars and captured rich booty. The Jin government awarded high titles to the steppe leaders as a reward for the defeat of the Tatars. Temujin received the title "jauthuri" (military commissar), and Togoril - "van" (prince), from that time he became known as Van Khan. In 1202, Temujin independently opposed the Tatars. Temujin's victories caused the consolidation of the forces of his opponents. A whole coalition took shape, including Tatars, Taichiuts, Merkits, Oirats and other tribes, which elected Jamukha as their khan. In the spring of 1203, a battle took place that ended in the complete defeat of the forces of Jamukha. This victory further strengthened the Temujin ulus.

In 1204, Temujin defeated the Naimans. Their ruler Tayan Khan died, and his son Kuchuluk fled to the territory of Semirechye in the country of the Karakitai (southwest of Lake Balkhash).

At the kurultai in 1206, Temujin was proclaimed the great khan over all tribes - Genghis Khan. Mongolia has been transformed: the scattered and warring Mongolian nomadic tribes have united into a single state.

After Temujin became the all-Mongol ruler, his policies began to reflect the interests of the Noyon movement even more clearly. The Noyons needed internal and external activities that would help consolidate their dominance and increase their income. New wars of conquest and the robbery of rich countries were supposed to ensure the expansion of the sphere of feudal exploitation and the strengthening of the class positions of the noyons.

The administrative system created under Genghis Khan was adapted to achieve these goals. He divided the entire population into tens, hundreds, thousands and tumens (ten thousand), thereby mixing tribes and clans and appointing specially selected people from his confidants and nukers as commanders over them. All adult and healthy men were considered warriors who ran their households in peacetime and took up arms in wartime. Such an organization provided Genghis Khan with the opportunity to increase his armed forces up to approximately 95 thousand soldiers.

Individual hundreds, thousands and tumens, together with the territory for nomadism, were given into the possession of one or another noyon. The Great Khan, considering himself the owner of all the land in the state, distributed land and arats into the possession of noyons, on the condition that they would regularly perform certain duties in return. The most important duty was military service. Each noyon was obliged, at the first request of the overlord, to field the required number of warriors in the field. Noyon, in his inheritance, could exploit the labor of the arats, distributing his cattle to them for grazing or involving them directly in work on his farm. Small noyons served large ones.

Under Genghis Khan, the enslavement of arats was legalized, and unauthorized movement from one dozen, hundreds, thousands or tumens to others was prohibited. This ban meant the formal attachment of the arats to the land of the noyons - for migrating from their possessions, the arats faced the death penalty.

Genghis Khan elevated the written law to a cult and was a supporter of strong law and order. He created a network of communication lines in his empire, courier communications on a large scale for military and administrative purposes, and organized intelligence, including economic intelligence.

Genghis Khan divided the country into two “wings”. He placed Boorcha at the head of the right wing, and Mukhali, his two most faithful and experienced associates, at the head of the left. He made the positions and ranks of senior and highest military leaders - centurions, thousanders and temniks - hereditary in the family of those who, with their faithful service, helped him seize the khan's throne.

In 1207-1211, the Mongols conquered the land of the Yakuts, Kyrgyz and Uighurs, that is, they subjugated almost all the main tribes and peoples of Siberia, imposing tribute on them. In 1209, Genghis Khan conquered Central Asia and turned his gaze to the south.

Before the conquest of China, Genghis Khan decided to secure the eastern border by capturing in 1207 the Tangut state of Xi-Xia, who had previously conquered Northern China from the dynasty of the Chinese Song emperors and created their own state, which was located between his possessions and the Jin state. Having captured several fortified cities, in the summer of 1208 the “True Ruler” retreated to Longjin, waiting out the unbearable heat that fell that year. Meanwhile, news reaches him that his old enemies Tokhta-beki and Kuchluk are preparing for a new war with him. Anticipating their invasion and having carefully prepared, Genghis Khan defeated them completely in a battle on the banks of the Irtysh.

Satisfied with the victory, Temujin again sends his troops against Xi-Xia. After defeating an army of Chinese Tatars, he captured the fortress and passage in the Great Wall of China and in 1213 invaded the Chinese Empire itself, the state of Jin and advanced as far as Nianxi in Hanshu Province. With increasing persistence, Genghis Khan led his troops, strewing the road with corpses, deep into the continent and established his power even over the province of Liaodong, central to the empire. Several Chinese commanders, seeing that the Mongol conqueror was gaining constant victories, ran over to his side. The garrisons surrendered without a fight.

Having established his position along the entire Great Wall of China, in the fall of 1213 Temujin sent three armies to different parts of the Chinese Empire. One of them, under the command of the three sons of Genghis Khan - Jochi, Chagatai and Ogedei, headed south. Another, led by Temujin's brothers and generals, moved east to the sea. Genghis Khan himself and his youngest son Tolui, at the head of the main forces, set out in a southeastern direction. The First Army advanced as far as Honan and, after capturing twenty-eight cities, joined Genghis Khan on the Great Western Road. The army under the command of Temujin's brothers and generals captured the province of Liao-hsi, and Genghis Khan himself ended his triumphant campaign only after he reached the sea rocky cape in Shandong province. But either fearing civil strife, or due to other reasons, he decides to return to Mongolia in the spring of 1214 and makes peace with the Chinese emperor, leaving Beijing to him. However, before the leader of the Mongols had time to leave the Great Wall of China, the Chinese emperor moved his court further away, to Kaifeng. This step was perceived by Temujin as a manifestation of hostility, and he again sent troops into the empire, now doomed to destruction. The war continued.

The Jurchen troops in China, replenished by the aborigines, fought the Mongols until 1235 on their own initiative, but were defeated and exterminated by Genghis Khan's successor Ogedei.

Following China, Genghis Khan was preparing for a campaign in Kazakhstan and Central Asia. He was especially attracted to the flourishing cities of Southern Kazakhstan and Zhetysu. He decided to implement his plan through the valley of the Ili River, where rich cities were located and ruled by Genghis Khan’s longtime enemy, the Naiman Khan Kuchluk.

While Genghis Khan was conquering more and more cities and provinces of China, the fugitive Naiman Khan Kuchluk asked the gurkhan who had given him refuge to help gather the remnants of the army defeated at the Irtysh. Having gained a fairly strong army under his hand, Kuchluk entered into an alliance against his overlord with the Shah of Khorezm Muhammad, who had previously paid tribute to the Karakitays. After a short but decisive military campaign, the allies were left with a big gain, and the gurkhan was forced to relinquish power in favor of the uninvited guest. In 1213, Gurkhan Zhilugu died, and the Naiman khan became the sovereign ruler of Semirechye. Sairam, Tashkent, and the northern part of Fergana came under his power. Having become an irreconcilable opponent of Khorezm, Kuchluk began persecution of Muslims in his domains, which aroused the hatred of the settled population of Zhetysu. The ruler of Koylyk (in the valley of the Ili River) Arslan Khan, and then the ruler of Almalyk (northwest of modern Gulja) Bu-zar moved away from the Naimans and declared themselves subjects of Genghis Khan.

In 1218, Jebe's troops, together with the troops of the rulers of Koylyk and Almalyk, invaded the lands of the Karakitai. The Mongols conquered Semirechye and Eastern Turkestan, which were owned by Kuchluk. In the first battle, Jebe defeated the Naiman. The Mongols allowed Muslims to perform public worship, which had previously been prohibited by the Naiman, which contributed to the transition of the entire settled population to the side of the Mongols. Kuchluk, unable to organize resistance, fled to Afghanistan, where he was caught and killed. The residents of Balasagun opened the gates to the Mongols, for which the city received the name Gobalyk - “good city”. The road to Khorezm opened before Genghis Khan.

After the conquest of China and Khorezm, the supreme ruler of the Mongol clan leaders, Genghis Khan, sent a strong cavalry corps under the command of Jebe and Subedei to explore the “western lands”. They walked along the southern shore of the Caspian Sea, then, after the devastation of Northern Iran, they penetrated Transcaucasia, defeated the Georgian army (1222) and, moving north along the western shore of the Caspian Sea, met a united army of Polovtsians, Lezgins, Circassians and Alans in the North Caucasus. A battle took place, which did not have decisive consequences. Then the conquerors split the ranks of the enemy. They gave gifts to the Polovtsians and promised not to touch them. The latter began to disperse to their nomadic camps. Taking advantage of this, the Mongols easily defeated the Alans, Lezgins and Circassians, and then defeated the Polovtsians piecemeal. At the beginning of 1223, the Mongols invaded Crimea, took the city of Surozh (Sudak) and again moved into the Polovtsian steppes.

The Polovtsians fled to Rus'. Leaving the Mongol army, Khan Kotyan, through his ambassadors, asked not to refuse him the help of his son-in-law Mstislav the Udal, as well as Mstislav III Romanovich, the ruling Grand Duke of Kyiv. At the beginning of 1223, a large princely congress was convened in Kyiv, where it was agreed that the armed forces of the princes of Kyiv, Galicia, Chernigov, Seversk, Smolensk and Volyn principalities, united, should support the Polovtsians. The Dnieper, near the island of Khortitsa, was appointed as the gathering place for the Russian united army. Here envoys from the Mongol camp were met, inviting the Russian military leaders to break the alliance with the Polovtsians and return to Rus'. Taking into account the experience of the Cumans (who in 1222 persuaded the Mongols to break their alliance with the Alans, after which Jebe defeated the Alans and attacked the Cumans), Mstislav executed the envoys. In the battle on the Kalka River, the troops of Daniil of Galitsky, Mstislav the Udal and Khan Kotyan, without informing the other princes, decided to “deal with” the Mongols on their own and crossed to the eastern bank, where on May 31, 1223 they were completely defeated while passively contemplating this bloody battle on the part of the main Russian forces led by Mstislav III, located on the elevated opposite bank of the Kalka.

Mstislav III, having fenced himself off with a tyn, held the defense for three days after the battle, and then came to an agreement with Jebe and Subedai to lay down arms and freely retreat to Rus', as he had not participated in the battle. However, he, his army and the princes who trusted him were treacherously captured by the Mongols and cruelly tortured as “traitors to their own army.”

After the victory, the Mongols organized the pursuit of the remnants of the Russian army (only every tenth soldier returned from the Azov region), destroying cities and villages in the Dnieper direction, capturing civilians. However, the disciplined Mongol military leaders had no orders to linger in Rus'. They were soon recalled by Genghis Khan, who considered that the main task of the reconnaissance campaign to the west had been successfully completed. On the way back at the mouth of the Kama, the troops of Jebe and Subedei suffered a serious defeat from the Volga Bulgars, who refused to recognize the power of Genghis Khan over themselves. After this failure, the Mongols went down to Saksin and along the Caspian steppes returned to Asia, where in 1225 they united with the main forces of the Mongol army.

The Mongol forces remaining in China enjoyed the same success as the armies in Western Asia. The Mongol Empire was expanded with several new conquered provinces lying north of the Yellow River, with the exception of one or two cities. After the death of Emperor Xuyin Zong in 1223, the Northern Chinese Empire virtually ceased to exist, and the borders of the Mongol Empire almost coincided with the borders of Central and Southern China, ruled by the imperial Song dynasty.

Upon returning from Central Asia, Genghis Khan once again led his army through Western China. In 1225 or early 1226, Genghis launched a campaign against the Tangut country. During this campaign, astrologers informed the Mongol leader that five planets were in unfavorable alignment. The superstitious Mongol believed that he was in danger. Under the power of foreboding, the formidable conqueror went home, but on the way he fell ill and died on August 25, 1227.

After the death of Genghis Khan, his third son Ogedei became khan in 1229. During Ogedei's reign, the empire's borders expanded rapidly. In the northwest, Batu Khan (Batu) founded the Golden Horde and conquered the principalities of Rus' one after another, destroyed Kiev, and the next year attacked Central Europe, captured Poland, Bohemia, Hungary and reached the Adriatic Sea. Ogedei Khan organized a second campaign against northern China, which was ruled by the Liao dynasty, and in 1234 the war, which had lasted almost 20 years, ended. Immediately after this, Ogedei Khan declared war on the Song Dynasty of Southern China, which was ended by Kublai Khan in 1279.

In 1241, Ogedei and Chagadai died almost simultaneously and the khan's throne remained unoccupied. As a result of a five-year struggle for power, Guyuk became khan, but he died after one year of rule. In 1251, Tolui's son Mongke became khan. Munke Khan's son Hulagu crossed the Amu Darya River in 1256 and declared war on the Muslim world. His troops reached the Red Sea, conquered big lands and they burned many cities. Hulagu captured the city of Baghdad and killed about 800 thousand people. The Mongols had never conquered such a rich and large city before. Hulagu planned to conquer northern Africa, but in 1251 Mongke Khan died in Karakorum. Due to the struggle between the two younger brothers Kublai and Arig-Bug for the throne, he had to interrupt his successful campaign. Later, Hulagu Khan created the Ilkhan state, which lasted for many years. Thus, to the west of Mongolia there were huge states (uluses) created by the children of Genghis Khan: the Golden Horde, the White Horde, the state of Hulagu, and the largest state, Yuan, was founded in 1260 by Kublai Khan, whose capital was the city of Beijing. Kublai and Arig-Bugha fought for a long time for the Khan's throne. After the death of his brother Möngke, Kublai fought in South China, where he urgently convened a kurultai (assembly) and was elected khan. At the same time, his younger brother Arig-Buga in Karakorum was elected khan, but Kublai sent troops against his brother and forced him to recognize himself as khan. The following year, Khubilai left Karakorum forever and went to Dadu, modern Beijing, and founded the Yuan Dynasty, which means "great beginning." The foundation of this dynasty was the beginning of the collapse of Great Mongolia and the beginning of the development of large independent states of the descendants of Genghis Khan. Kublai Khan continued the war in the south and captured southern China in 1272. The Yuan State was the strongest and most powerful state at that time. Kublai Khan continued to wage war in a southern direction and captured the Indochina peninsula, the islands of Java and Sumatra.

Kublai Khan made attempts to conquer Japan. Korea was already under the rule of the Mongol Khan, and he made attempts from there to attack Japan in 1274 and 1281.
During the first attack, the Mongols had 900 ships and 40 thousand soldiers. The second time there were already 4,400 ships and 140 thousand soldiers. It was the largest fleet during the reign of Kublai Khan. However, every Mongol attempt to capture Japan was thwarted by a typhoon and all the ships were sunk. Kublai Khan ruled the Yuan State for 34 years and died in 1294. After his death, the state of the Mongol Yuan dynasty lasted another 70 years until the dynasty was overthrown by the rebel Chinese during the reign of Khan Togon-Tumur. The capital of the Mongol Khan was moved back to Karakorum. Another state founded by the descendants of Genghis Khan, Jochi and Batu, was the Golden Horde.

Over time, the empire split into several small states. Thus, in the area from Altai mountains to the Black Sea, many nationalities of Turkic origin appeared, such as Bashkirs, Tatars, Circassians, Khakassians, Nogais, Kabardians, Crimean Tatars, etc. Mavaranahr, which arose on the territory of the Chagadai state, was powerful during the reign of Tumur Khan, capturing territories from Baghdad to China , but also fell apart. The Ilkhan Empire of Hulagu revived briefly during the period of Ghazan Khan, but soon Persia, the Arab state, and Turkey began to revive and the 500-year rule of the Ottoman Empire was established. Without a doubt, the Mongols were the dominant people in the 13th century, and Mongolia became famous throughout the world.

After the fall of the Yuan Dynasty, the Mongols who lived there returned to their homeland and lived there freely until they were captured by the Manchus. This time is marked in history as the period of small khans; without a single khan, the Mongols were divided into separate principalities. Of the forty tumens, or principalities, that existed during the time of Genghis Khan, by that time only six remained. There were also 4 Oirat tumens. Therefore, the whole of Mongolia was sometimes called “forty and four.” The Oirats, first of all, wanted to control all the Mongols, and therefore there was a constant struggle for power. Taking advantage of this, the Chinese regularly attacked the Mongols and one day reached Karakorum and destroyed it. In the 16th century Dayan Khan united the Mongols again, but after his death the struggle for the throne began. Over the course of 10 years, 5 khans changed on the throne and the state eventually ceased to exist.

When Dayan Khan's youngest son Geresendze seized power, the name Khalkha was assigned to Northern Mongolia. He divided it among his seven sons. This is how the first administrative units of khoshuns (districts) were formed. The Mongolian nobility quarreled a lot with each other, they came up with various titles and titles that elevated them. Abatai, the grandson of Geresenedze, called himself Tushetu Khan, his cousin Sholoy called himself Setsen Khan, and Luikhar Zasagtu Khan. During the Manchu Qing dynasty in 1752, the aimag of Sain-Noyon Khan broke away from the territory of the aimags of Tushetu Khan and Zasag Khan.

MONGOLIA DURING THE MANCHU QING DYNASTY

At the beginning of the 17th century. The Manchus, who lived in the northeast of what is now China, unexpectedly quickly began to gain strength. They attacked the fragmented Mongol tribes and forced them to pay tribute. In 1636, the Manchus annexed Inner Mongolia. After capturing Beijing in 1644, they founded the Qing Dynasty and unified all of China within two years. They then turned their attention north towards Mongolia. As a result of conflicts between the Khalkhas and Oirats, as well as the skillful instigation of quarrels on the part of Tibet, the Manchus managed to annex Mongolia in 1696.

After the signing of the agreement between the Qing Empire and Russia in 1725 in Kyakhta, the Russian-Chinese border was completely defined. Taking advantage of the weakness of the splintered Oirats, a Manchu army of 50 thousand soldiers defeated them and annexed them into the empire in 1755. Thus, the Manchus annexed Mongolia to China after 130 years of effort. In 1755-1757 The Oirats began an uprising, and at the same time the Khalkhas resisted. As a precaution against the Mongols, military units were stationed in Ulyasutai. Administratively, Mongolia was divided into 4 Khalkha and 2 Derbet aimags with a total of 125 khoshuns (an administrative unit during the reign of the Manchus). Since the Bogdo Gegen Jabdzundamba supported Amarsana, the leader of the uprising, Beijing decided to invite subsequent Bogdo Gegen only from Tibet. The residence of Bogdo Gegen was located in Da Khuree (Urga). Later, an amban office was created in Kobdo and a customs office in Kyakhta. The Ministry of Mongolian Affairs "Jurgan" was opened in Beijing, through which relations were established between the Mongols and the Manchu-Chinese Empire. The Manchus themselves were half nomads. Therefore, to prevent Sinicization, they banned all relations between the Mongols and the Chinese. Chinese traders were allowed only for a short time and specific route coming to Mongolia and it was forbidden to live here permanently and carry out any other activities other than trade.

Thus, Mongolia was at that time a vassal province of the Manchu Qing Empire with special rights. But later the small population of Manchuria was assimilated by the Chinese.

FIGHT FOR INDEPENDENCE

Early 20th century found Mongolia on the verge of complete impoverishment and ruin. The Manchu yoke had a detrimental effect not only on the material living conditions of the Mongolian people, but also on their physical condition. At the same time, there were many foreign merchants and moneylenders in the country, in whose hands enormous wealth accumulated. Discontent grew increasingly in the country, resulting in spontaneous uprisings of the arats against the Manchu authorities. Thus, by 1911, real conditions were emerging for a national struggle in Mongolia to overthrow more than two centuries of the Manchu yoke. In July 1911, a meeting was held in Urga (now Ulaanbaatar), secretly from the Manchu authorities, in which the largest secular and spiritual leaders, led by Bogdo Gegen (His Serene Bogdo), took part. Taking into account the new course of Manchu policy and the mood of the Mongol people, the meeting participants recognized it as impossible for Mongolia to remain under the rule of the Qing dynasty any longer. At this time, the national liberation movement was rapidly developing throughout the country, starting from Urga and ending with the province of Khovd.

December 1, 1911 An appeal to the Mongolian people was published, which said: “Our Mongolia from the very beginning of its existence was an independent state, and therefore, according to ancient law, Mongolia declares itself an independent power from others in the conduct of its affairs. In view of the above, it is declared that we, Mongols, from now on we do not submit to the Manchu and Chinese officials, whose power is completely destroyed, and as a result they must go home." On December 4, 1911, the Manchu Amban Sando and his other officials left Urga for China.

December 29, 1911 In Urga, in the Dzun-khuree monastery, a ceremony took place for the head of the Lamaist Church, Bogdo Gegen, who received the title “Elevated by Many,” to the khan’s throne. Thus, as a result of the liberation movement of the Mongolian arats, the country threw off the Manchu yoke and expelled the hated Manchu bureaucracy. Thus, more than two hundred years after the liquidation of Mongolian statehood by the Manchus, the latter was restored in the form of an unlimited feudal-theocratic monarchy, which was an objectively progressive phenomenon and the history of our country.

A government with five ministries was formed and the city of Khuree was declared the capital. After the liberation of Kobdo, they were joined by the Oirats, as well as Barga and most of the Khoshuns of Inner Mongolia. As a result of long disputes in 1915 A historical tripartite Russian-Mongolian-Chinese agreement was concluded in Kyakhta. China wanted to completely subjugate Mongolia, which the Mongols fiercely resisted. Russia was interested in creating autonomy only in Outer Mongolia and sought this. After years of disputes, Mongolia agreed that Inner Mongolia would be completely subordinated to China, and Outer Mongolia would be an autonomy with special rights under Chinese suzerainty. At this time, a fierce struggle was going on in China. A representative of one of the factions, Xu Shuzheng, arrived in Mongolia with troops and canceled the agreement of the three states and dissolved the government of Bogdo Gegen.

December 29, 2007 Mongolia will celebrate National Freedom Day for the first time. This day is celebrated in accordance with the amendments introduced by Parliament in August 2007 to the law on general holidays and significant dates.

PERIOD OF REVOLUTIONARY TRANSFORMATIONS 1919-1924

In 1917, the October Revolution took place in Russia. Then there was a long Civil War. Mongolia, having lost its autonomy, asked for help from different states. Bodoo and Danzan, representatives of the People's Party, visited Russia. But Soviet Russia viewed Mongolia as part of China and refused to expel Chinese troops from the country.

The Mongolian people's army under the command of Sukhbaatar and units of the Soviet Red Army that came to the aid of the Mongolian people in May - August 1921 defeated the White Guard troops of Lieutenant General Baron Ungern von Sternberg. On July 6, 1921, Urga (now Ulaanbaatar) was liberated. On July 10, the Provisional People's Government was reorganized into a permanent People's Government; Sukhbaatar became part of it, taking the post of Minister of War. Soviet Russia did not agree with Mongolia's independence, but in 1921 it recognized the government led by Bodoo. The new government carried out the coronation of Bogdo Gegen and established a limited monarchy. Serfdom was also abolished and a course was set for the creation of a modern and civilized state.

Moscow and Beijing have been delaying the solution to the problem of Mongolia's independence for a long time. Finally, in May 1924 Soviet Union and the Government of China signed an agreement that Mongolia is part of China. Also, the Soviet Union reached an agreement with the leaders of the Chinese Kuomintang to carry out the Red Revolution throughout China, including Mongolia. Thus, Mongolia became the object of inexplicable and poorly consistent agreements between the Soviet Union, the Chinese Government and the Kuomintang leaders.

1924 Mongolia declared the formation of the People's Republic and adopted a Constitution. After the death of Bogd Khan Jebdzundamba, it became necessary to choose a form of government for Mongolia. During the development of the new constitution, the first State Khural was convened. The Khural did not accept the first draft of this constitution, accusing the constitutional commission of copying the constitutions of capitalist countries. It was developed in Moscow new project constitution, which was adopted. The capital Khuree was renamed Ulaanbaatar. The main significance of the Constitution is that it proclaimed the formation of the People's Republic. The prime minister of Mongolia at that time was Tserendorj.

In 1925, the USSR withdrew units of the Red Army after eliminating the remnants of the White Guard gangs in Mongolia. The note from the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs of the USSR G.V. Chicherin dated January 24, 1925 stated: “The USSR Government believes that the presence of Soviet troops within the Mongolian People’s Republic is no longer necessary.”

At the end of May 1921, Baron Ungern with his “Wild Division” invaded Transbaikalia from Mongolia, hoping to stir up an anti-communist uprising. This was the “favorable moment” that Moscow had been waiting for. The Soviet government had a reason for the Soviet troops to march into Mongolia. In bloody battles on Soviet territory, Ungern's main forces were defeated, their remnants retreated to Mongolia.
On June 16, the Politburo of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) adopted a resolution on a military campaign in Mongolia. On July 7, troops of the RSFSR, Far Eastern Republic and a few “Red Mongolian” units, without encountering any resistance, entered Urga (Ulaanbaatar). Ungern liquidated Chinese influence in Mongolia, declaring its independence. In this way, he greatly helped Soviet Russia establish its influence in Mongolia.
At that moment, Ungern comes up with another incredible plan. In view of his defeat in Mongolia, he decided to move with the remnants of the “Wild Division” through the impassable Gobi Desert into Tibet in order to enter the service of the 13th Dalai Lama. But his soldiers opposed this plan. The Baron was tied up by his rebellious subordinates and thrown into the steppes, where he was picked up by Red Army scouts. After a short trial, on September 16, 1921, Ungern was shot in Novonikolaevsk (Novosibirsk).
The leaders of the Soviet campaign noted in reports to Moscow: “The main condition for a free, painless advance deep into Mongolia is the preservation of the friendly attitude of the native population, (which) suffered severely from the requisitions of the white bandits.”
On July 11, 1921, Mongolian revolutionaries proclaimed Mongolia a socialist state - the MPR (Mongolian People's Republic) and formed the People's Government. The new political reality was consolidated by the official request of the People's Government of Moscow not to withdraw Red Army units from Mongolia.
Many of the Mongolian revolutionaries studied in Russia or Mongolia in courses where Russian teachers worked. For example, Sukhbaatar graduated from machine gun courses in Urga, Bodo taught at the school of translators at the Russian consulate. Choibolsan studied at the school at the Irkutsk Teachers' Institute for several years. Education in Russia was free or very cheap, and the travel and accommodation of Mongolian youth was paid for by the government of Bogdo-Gegen (formed in Mongolia in 1911).
In October - November 1921, a delegation of the MPR, which included Sukhbaatar, visited Moscow. The Mongolian delegation was received by V.I. Lenin. In a conversation with its representatives, the head of the Soviet government said that the only way for the Mongols was to fight for the complete independence of the country. For this struggle, he noted, the Mongols urgently need “a political and state organization.” On November 5, an agreement was signed to establish Soviet-Mongolian relations.
Soviet Russia defended its interests in Mongolia. Of course, this naturally created a threat to Chinese interests in Mongolia. States in the international arena seek to harm each other's interests; each of them, based on its own strategic considerations, pursues its own political line.
The Beijing government has repeatedly demanded the withdrawal of Red Army units from Mongolia. In August 1922, the second delegation of the RSFSR, headed by A.A., arrived in Beijing to establish Soviet-Chinese diplomatic relations. Ioffe. The Chinese side put forward the “Mongolian question” - the question of the presence of Soviet troops in Mongolia - as a pretext for delaying negotiations. The head of the Soviet delegation emphasized then that Soviet Russia “does not harbor” aggressive and selfish goals towards Mongolia. What could he say?
During the Soviet-Chinese negotiations in 1924 (in which the Soviet side was represented by the Soviet plenipotentiary in China L.M. Karakhan), difficulties also arose regarding the “Mongolian question.” The Beijing government advocated that the Sino-Soviet agreement would annul all Soviet-Mongolian treaties and agreements. Beijing was against the fact that in these documents the USSR and Mongolia acted as two states. The Chinese government insisted on the immediate withdrawal of Soviet troops from Mongolia. Beijing did not agree that the condition for their withdrawal would be the establishment of a Mongolian-Chinese border.
May 22 L.M. Karakhan handed over to the Chinese side amendments to the agreement, which the Soviet side was ready to accept. Soon, the Chinese Foreign Minister, for his part, made concessions; he agreed with the Soviet plenipotentiary's proposal not to annul a number of Soviet-Mongolian treaties. In the Soviet-Chinese agreement of May 31, 1924, it was decided to raise the issue of the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Mongolia at the Soviet-Chinese conference.
In June 1924, in connection with the death of the theocratic head of state Bogdo-Gegen, the Central Committee of the MPRP (Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party) and the People's Government of Mongolia spoke out in favor of the formation of a people's republic. In November 1924, the Great People's Khural declared Mongolia an independent people's republic. In fact, it turned into a Soviet sphere of influence.
In Mongolia, Moscow was able to implement the Comintern’s directive to provide support to the national revolutionary movement in the East. Here Moscow, contrary to the teachings of K. Marx, conducted a unique political experiment, starting the construction of socialism, bypassing the stage of capitalism. But most Mongolian revolutionaries dreamed not of this, but of the fact that Soviet Russia would support the Mongols in their quest for independence. And no more. In this regard, the death in 1923 of the young Sukhbaatar, the head of the conservative group in the Mongolian government and the main supporter of the national revolution, cannot but look suspicious.

Opolev Vitaly Grigorievich. Soviet military expedition to Mongolia on July 7, 1921. Establishment of official relations between the RSFSR and Mongolia on November 5, 1921. Soviet-Chinese agreement of May 31, 1924

MPR IN THE PRE-WAR YEARS. POLITICAL REPRESSION

1928 Supporters of the Comintern, the so-called “leftists,” came to power. With relations with Kuomintang China deteriorating, the Soviet Union and the Comintern began working to establish a communist society in Mongolia. However, the leaders of Mongolia tried to follow an independent policy, not taking into account the opinion of Moscow, but the VII Congress of the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party removed them from power.

Early 30s. Confiscation of property from the rich and prosperous arats. At the direction of the Comintern, the confiscation of property and livestock from the population began. The monasteries were devastated. Many people tried to hide their property and were arrested. For example, 5,191 people were sent to one of the central prisons. Even after these measures, the party decided that this was not enough, and a new confiscation campaign was organized, during which many ordinary people died. At that time, one sheep cost 50 tugriks, and property worth 9.7-10 million tugriks was confiscated.

Prime Minister Choibalsan was a consistent supporter of Stalin. Taking advantage of the fact that the head of Mongolia, Peljidiin Genden, lost Stalin’s trust (in particular, due to the fact that he refused to carry out mass repressions against Buddhist monks and force the introduction of centralized economy), in 1936 Choibalsan contributed to his removal from power, shortly after which Genden was arrested and executed. Choibalsan, who was the Minister of Defense at that time, did not formally occupy the highest position in the state for several years, but already then he became a leader and carried out massive repressions, destroying not only his opponents in the party, but also former aristocrats, monks and many other “undesirable categories” " According to modern Mongolian historians, Choibalsan was perhaps the most despotic leader of Mongolia over the last century. At the same time, thanks to his actions, mass literacy was achieved in Mongolia (Choibalsan abolished the rather complex ancient Mongolian alphabet and introduced the Cyrillic alphabet), the country turned from an agricultural one into an agrarian-industrial one. Although the Choibolsan regime is criticized by contemporaries, they also note Choibolsan’s efforts to preserve the independence of Mongolia.

On September 10, 1937, mass persecution began, so this period remained in history as the “years of great repression.” During these years, tens of thousands of innocent people were shot and thrown into dungeons, hundreds of monasteries were destroyed, and many cultural monuments were destroyed. In his notebook, Prime Minister Choibalsan noted that 56,938 people were arrested. At that time, the total population of Mongolia was only 700 thousand people. To date, 29 thousand repressed people have been rehabilitated, the state has issued compensation to the repressed and their relatives. Today, people whose archival materials were not found have not been rehabilitated.

MONGOLIA DURING THE SECOND WORLD WAR

1939 Fighting at Khalkhin Gol. In the mid-1930s, the Japanese created the puppet state of Manchukuo and began a dispute over the border with Mongolia. In May 1939 it escalated into an armed conflict. The Soviet Union sent its troops to help Mongolia. The Kwantung Army, having brought in additional forces, began a war that lasted until September. In September 1939, in Moscow, by agreement between the four countries of Mongolia, Manchukuo, the USSR and Japan, this war, which claimed 70 thousand lives, was officially ended. During the joint military operations of Soviet and Mongolian troops to defeat the Japanese militarists in the area of ​​the Khalkhin Gol River in 1939 and the Kwantung Army in the Manchurian Operation of 1945, Choibalsan was the commander-in-chief of the MNRA.

During the Great Patriotic War Soviet Union (1941-1945) Mongolia, to the best of its ability, provided assistance in its struggle against Nazi Germany. About half a million horses were transferred to the Soviet Union; funds raised by the Mongolian people were used to create tank column And air squadron of fighter aircraft. Dozens of trains with warm clothes, food and various gifts. During the final stages of World War II, the Mongol People's Army As part of a cavalry-mechanized group of Soviet-Mongolian troops, she took part in the defeat of militaristic Japan.

1942 Mongolian State University was founded. Mongolia's first university was founded during World War II. Many outstanding professors came from the USSR and took part in its opening. Mongolia began to train its professional personnel, which served as a powerful impetus in cultural and social development countries. Mongolia also sent many students to study in the USSR. In the 20th century About 54 thousand Mongols were educated in the USSR, of which 16 thousand received higher education. They began to develop their country and turned it into a state of the 20th century.

1945 A plebiscite was held on the issue of Mongolia's independence. The Yalta Agreement recognized the status quo of Mongolia. The Chinese government decided that if the Mongols confirmed their independence, then China would agree to recognize it. In October 1945, a nationwide plebiscite was organized. On its basis, on January 6, 1946, China, and on November 27, 1946, the USSR recognized the independence of Mongolia. The struggle for independence, which lasted almost 40 years, successfully ended and Mongolia became a truly independent state.

PERIOD OF SOCIALISM

In 1947, a railway line was built connecting Naushki and Ulaanbaatar. Only in 1954, the construction of the trans-Mongolian railway with a length of more than 1,100 km, which connected the GCC and the People's Republic of China, was completed. The construction of the railway, carried out in accordance with the Agreement between the Government of the Mongolian People's Republic and the USSR on the establishment of the Soviet-Mongolian joint-stock company "Ulaanbaatar Railway" of 1949, was and continues to be important for the socio-economic development of Mongolia.

1956 The Cultural Revolution began. A campaign was launched to improve public health. It was necessary to introduce civilized life and modern culture into Mongolia. As a result of three cultural attacks, hotbeds of the spread of sexually transmitted diseases and illiteracy were destroyed, Mongolia joined the achievements of scientific and technological progress. Now there are many intelligent, modern people in the country.

1959 In general, the collectivization of pastoralists was completed. The development of agriculture and the development of virgin lands began. Based on the Soviet example, work began on “voluntary” collectivization. In 1959, the development of virgin lands marked the development of a new branch of agriculture, which resulted in one of the largest revolutions in the history of Mongolia.

1960 The population of Ulaanbaatar reached 100,000 people. People moved to Ulaanbaatar in large numbers. The urbanization of Mongolia began. This led to changes in social sphere and industry. With the help of the USSR and then the CMEA member countries, the basis of the country's industry was created.

1961 Mongolia became a member of the UN. Since 1946, Mongolia tried to become a member of the UN, but this for a long time the West and China interfered. After Mongolia became a member of the UN and other international organizations, she was recognized all over the world.

In the early 60s of the 20th century, relations between the USSR and China deteriorated and led to armed clashes on the border. In 1967, the Soviet Union sent troops into Mongolia, the total number of Soviet military personnel reached 75-80 thousand. China has concentrated troops on its northern borders.

During the Cold War, Mongolia was able to take loans from the USSR. Soviet Union during from 1972 to 1990. allocated 10 billion rubles to Mongolia. This money gave impetus to social and economic development. In 1972, construction began on a mining and processing plant for the production of copper and molybdenum concentrate in Erdenet, which began operations in 1980. This largest plant laid the foundation for major changes in the Mongolian economy. This plant is one of the top ten world leaders and has become a major factor in changing the structure of Mongolia's economy. By 2010, the Russian-Mongolian joint mining and processing plant Erdenet, whose injections into the Mongolian state budget account for half of it, will begin exporting copper with the “Made in Mongolia” label.

Zhugderdemidiin Gurragcha - the first cosmonaut of Mongolia, completed a space flight from March 22 to March 30, 1981 as a cosmonaut-researcher on the Soyuz-39 spacecraft (crew commander V.A. Dzhanibekov) and the Salyut-6 orbital research complex - the Soyuz T-4 spacecraft, where the main expedition crew worked commander V.V. Kovalyonok and flight engineer V.P. Savinykh. The duration of stay in space was 7 days 20 hours 42 minutes 3 seconds.

In August 1984 It was as if thunder struck from a clear sky: the main dargah (leader) of Mongolia, Yu. Tsedenbal, was released from the posts of First Secretary of the MPRP Central Committee, Chairman of the Great People's Khural, and, as officially reported, “taking into account the state of his health and with his consent.” Many, perplexed, believed that this was apparently ordered by the Kremlin, which was counting on the rejuvenation of the leadership cadres in the fraternal countries. In 1984, Tsedenbal moved with his wife Anastasia Ivanovna Tsedenbal-Filatova and sons Vladislav and Zorig to Moscow. The new Mongolian authorities did not even allow him to spend a vacation in his homeland, which also contributed to the oblivion of the dargah. At the funeral in 1991 at the Ulan Bator cemetery “Altan Ulgiy” only family and close friends were present. Currently, Anastasia Ivanovna Tsedenbal-Filatova and her son Vladislav are no longer alive. By presidential decree, former manager Mongolia Yumzhagiin Tsedenbal was rehabilitated, all his awards and the rank of marshal were restored.

DEMOCRATIC TRANSFORMATIONS

In mid-1986, by decision of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the USSR M.S. Gorbachev began the withdrawal of Soviet troops from the territory of the MPR. At the same time, the repeated statements of the Mongolian government that Mongolia would not be able to ensure its sovereignty without the help of the USSR were not taken into account.

In 1989, the communist system was collapsing around the world. The Tiananmen movement arose in China, and Eastern European countries chose democracy and freedom. On December 10, 1989, the creation of the Democratic Union of Mongolia was announced. Soon the Democratic Party of Mongolia and the Social Democratic Party of Mongolia were created, which demanded changes in social structure countries. In the summer, the first free elections were held in Mongolia. The first parliament of the Small Khural began to work on a permanent basis. P. Ochirbat was elected the first President of Mongolia. Thus, Mongolia became a free and independent state and moved towards an open society and a market economy.

The withdrawal of troops from Mongolia took 28 months. On February 4, 1989, a Soviet-Chinese agreement was signed to reduce the number of troops on the border. On May 15, 1989, the Soviet leadership announced the partial and then complete withdrawal of the 39th Army of the Trans-Baikal Military District from Mongolia. The army included two tank and three motorized rifle divisions - more than 50 thousand military personnel, 1816 tanks, 2531 armored vehicles, 1461 artillery systems, 190 aircraft and 130 helicopters. On September 25, 1992, the completion of the troop withdrawal was officially announced. Latest Russian soldiers left Mongolia in December 1992.

During the withdrawal of troops, hundreds of apartment buildings, a huge number of barracks, clubs, officers' houses, hospitals (in each garrison), school buildings, kindergartens, etc., etc. were transferred to the Mongolian side. The Mongols, accustomed to living in their yurts, were unable and unwilling to use the buildings abandoned by the Soviet group, and soon it was all destroyed and looted.

In May 1991 The Great People's Khural made a decision on privatization. Livestock was completely privatized by 1993. At that time, the livestock population numbered 22 million heads, but now it is more than 39 million (at the end of 2007). To date, 80% of state property has been privatized.

January 13, 1992 Mongolia approved a democratic Constitution and declared the formation of a republic with parliamentary governance.

The last elections to the State Great Khural took place in 2004. Due to the fact that none of the political parties was able to take a majority of seats in parliament, a coalition government was formed.

MONGOLIA TODAY

In April 2007, the population of Ulaanbaatar exceeded 1,000,000 people.

July 1, 2008, after the latest parliamentary elections, police clashed with demonstrators in Ulaanbaatar, who set fire to the headquarters of the ruling party. According to Mongolian television, five people were killed and about 400 police officers were injured as a result of the unrest. Several journalists were also injured; a correspondent from Japan is in intensive care.

The clashes began after the opposition accused the ruling Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) - the former Communist Party - of rigging the results of the parliamentary elections that took place on Sunday June 29, 2008. In the Russian press, these riots were called the “cashmere revolution.” Now the streets of Ulaanbaatar are calm. (July 2008).

On June 18, 2009, the leader of the opposition took office as president Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, he became the 4th President of Mongolia.

Most history textbooks say that in the 13th-15th centuries Rus' suffered from the Mongol-Tatar yoke. However, in Lately More and more often are the voices of those who doubt that the invasion took place at all? Did huge hordes of nomads really surge into peaceful principalities, enslaving their inhabitants? Let's analyze historical facts, many of which may be shocking.

The yoke was invented by the Poles

The term “Mongol-Tatar yoke” itself was coined by Polish authors. The chronicler and diplomat Jan Dlugosz in 1479 called the time of existence of the Golden Horde this way. He was followed in 1517 by the historian Matvey Miechowski, who worked at the University of Krakow. This interpretation of the relationship between Rus' and the Mongol conquerors was quickly picked up by Western Europe, and from there it was borrowed by domestic historians.

Moreover, there were practically no Tatars themselves in the Horde troops. It’s just that in Europe the name of this Asian people was well known, and therefore it spread to the Mongols. Meanwhile, Genghis Khan tried to exterminate the entire Tatar tribe, defeating their army in 1202.

The first census of Rus'

The first population census in the history of Rus' was carried out by representatives of the Horde. They had to collect accurate information about the inhabitants of each principality and their class affiliation. The main reason for such interest in statistics on the part of the Mongols was the need to calculate the amount of taxes imposed on their subjects.

In 1246, a census took place in Kyiv and Chernigov, the Ryazan principality was subjected to statistical analysis in 1257, the Novgorodians were counted two years later, and the population of the Smolensk region - in 1275.

Moreover, the inhabitants of Rus' raised popular uprisings and drove out the so-called “besermen” who were collecting tribute for the khans of Mongolia from their land. But the governors of the rulers of the Golden Horde, called Baskaks, lived and worked for a long time in the Russian principalities, sending collected taxes to Sarai-Batu, and later to Sarai-Berke.

Joint hikes

Princely squads and Horde warriors often carried out joint military campaigns, both against other Russians and against residents of Eastern Europe. Thus, in the period 1258-1287, the troops of the Mongols and Galician princes regularly attacked Poland, Hungary and Lithuania. And in 1277, the Russians took part in the Mongol military campaign in the North Caucasus, helping their allies conquer Alanya.

In 1333, Muscovites stormed Novgorod, and in next year The Bryansk squad went to Smolensk. Each time, Horde troops also took part in these internecine battles. In addition, they regularly helped the great princes of Tver, considered at that time the main rulers of Rus', to pacify the rebellious neighboring lands.

The basis of the horde were Russians

The Arab traveler Ibn Battuta, who visited the city of Saray-Berke in 1334, wrote in his essay “A Gift to Those Contemplating the Wonders of Cities and the Wonders of Travel” that there are many Russians in the capital of the Golden Horde. Moreover, they make up the bulk of the population: both working and armed.

This fact was also mentioned by the White émigré author Andrei Gordeev in the book “History of the Cossacks,” which was published in France in the late 20s of the 20th century. According to the researcher, most The Horde troops were made up of the so-called Brodniks - ethnic Slavs who inhabited the Azov region and the Don steppes. These predecessors of the Cossacks did not want to obey the princes, so they moved to the south for the sake of a free life. The name of this ethnosocial group probably comes from the Russian word “wander” (wander).

As is known from chronicle sources, in the Battle of Kalka in 1223, the Brodniks, led by the governor Ploskyna, fought on the side of the Mongol troops. Perhaps his knowledge of the tactics and strategy of the princely squads had great importance to defeat the united Russian-Polovtsian forces.

In addition, it was Ploskynya who, by cunning, lured out the ruler of Kyiv, Mstislav Romanovich, along with two Turov-Pinsk princes and handed them over to the Mongols for execution.

However, most historians believe that the Mongols forced Russians to serve in their army, i.e. the invaders forcibly armed representatives of the enslaved people. Although this seems implausible.

And a senior researcher at the Institute of Archeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Marina Poluboyarinova, in the book “Russian People in the Golden Horde” (Moscow, 1978) suggested: “Probably, the forced participation of Russian soldiers in the Tatar army later ceased. There were mercenaries left who had already voluntarily joined the Tatar troops.”

Caucasian invaders

Yesugei-Baghatur, the father of Genghis Khan, was a representative of the Borjigin clan of the Mongolian Kiyat tribe. According to the descriptions of many eyewitnesses, both he and his legendary son were tall, fair-skinned people with reddish hair.

The Persian scientist Rashid ad-Din wrote in his work “Collection of Chronicles” (beginning of the 14th century) that all the descendants of the great conqueror were mostly blond and gray-eyed.

This means that the elite of the Golden Horde belonged to Caucasians. It is likely that representatives of this race predominated among other invaders.

There weren't many of them

We are accustomed to believe that in the 13th century Rus' was invaded by countless hordes of Mongol-Tatars. Some historians talk about 500,000 troops. However, it is not. After all, even the population of modern Mongolia barely exceeds 3 million people, and if we take into account the brutal genocide of fellow tribesmen committed by Genghis Khan on his way to power, the size of his army could not be so impressive.

It is difficult to imagine how to feed an army of half a million, moreover, traveling on horses. The animals simply would not have enough pasture. But each Mongolian horseman brought with him at least three horses. Now imagine a herd of 1.5 million. The horses of the warriors riding at the forefront of the army would eat and trample everything they could. The remaining horses would have starved to death.

According to the most daring estimates, the army of Genghis Khan and Batu could not have exceeded 30 thousand horsemen. While the population Ancient Rus', according to the historian Georgy Vernadsky (1887-1973), before the invasion there were about 7.5 million people.

Bloodless executions

The Mongols, like most peoples of that time, executed people who were not noble or disrespected by cutting off their heads. However, if the condemned person enjoyed authority, then his spine was broken and left to slowly die.

The Mongols were sure that blood was the seat of the soul. To shed it means to complicate it the afterlife the deceased to other worlds. Bloodless execution was applied to rulers, political and military figures, and shamans.

The reason for a death sentence in the Golden Horde could be any crime: from desertion from the battlefield to petty theft.

The bodies of the dead were thrown into the steppe

The method of burial of a Mongol also directly depended on his social status. Rich and influential people found peace in special burials, in which valuables, gold and silver jewelry, Houseware. And the poor and ordinary soldiers killed in battle were often simply left in the steppe, where their life’s journey ended.

In troubled conditions nomadic life, consisting of regular skirmishes with enemies, it was difficult to arrange funeral rites. The Mongols often had to move on quickly, without delay.

It was believed that the corpse of a worthy person would be quickly eaten by scavengers and vultures. But if birds and animals did not touch the body for a long time, according to popular beliefs, this meant that the soul of the deceased had a grave sin.

For almost 2.5 centuries, Rus' was under Tatar-Mongol oppression. Historians assess this time as stagnation in all spheres of life: political, economic, cultural.

For the princes of Rus', there was a significant limitation of power on the part of the Golden Horde. They directly depended on the will of the khans. In order to obtain a yarlyk (special permission) to reign, many rulers had to make significant concessions, and sometimes humiliation. During the period of the yoke, the peak of fragmentation in Rus' occurs, in addition, the number of massacres and intrigues increases significantly. Brother went against brother with the permission of the khan. Cities were ruined shopping centers, the treasury was emptied, all this led to the desolation of the once great principalities.

The common people also experienced the Mongol-Tatar yoke extremely negatively. The Khan's army destroyed everything in its path during raids and collection of tribute. Villages, villages and towns were plundered and burned. Livestock was taken from civilians, fields and crops were trampled. All this led to famine. Many civilians were taken into slavery.

The beginning of the Tatar-Mongol yoke

Why did the Tatar-Mongols manage to capture Rus':

• In the 13th century, the fragmentation of the state greatly weakened the position of Rus'; each principality alone could not resist the great Mongol army;
• the inconsistency of the Russian princes;
• the power of the Grand Duke was not centralized.

The Mongol-Tatars first appeared at the Russian borders back in 1223. That year there was the first meeting with the great Mongol army on the river. Kalke. Then the army of nomads dealt a crushing blow, after which the feast was tripled on the backs of the Polovtsian and Russian princes. Everyone was either killed or crushed. But the Tatar-Mongols did not move deeper into Rus'; they returned to the steppes.

Invasion of Rus'

In the winter of 1237, Khan Batu, the grandson of the famous Genghis Khan, sent his forces to the North-Eastern lands of Rus'. According to the will of the Great Khan, Russian lands were included in the ulus of his grandson. The first to stand on the path of the nomads was. The city was besieged, and the princes of the neighboring principalities came to the rescue: Vladimir and Suzdal. After six days of siege, the city was razed to the ground. Modern Ryazan is located approximately 60 km from the former city.

At the beginning of 1238, Batu moved to. The troops met near Kolomna, where almost the entire Vladimir army died.

After 5 days of siege, Moscow was burned and all residents were killed.

In a month, the Horde army covered approximately 300 km and approached Vladimir. The prince was not there at that moment. Yuri Vsevolodovich was in the north, gathering forces for the fight. The remaining residents, along with the family of the Grand Duke, were in the city and took refuge in the Assumption Cathedral. The Horde burned the temple with all the people inside.

Yuri Vsevolodovich, having learned about the fall of the city and the death of his family, immediately moved forward with the assembled army. The battle took place on the Vozha River. The Russians were defeated, and the Grand Duke himself was killed.

The nomads went north, looting and burning everything in their path. They did not reach about 100 km. There were several reasons why the Tatar-Mongols turned back:

• weakening of the army. All of Batu’s victories came at the cost of heavy losses;
• natural conditions. Spring was beginning and it was difficult for the cavalry to move along washed-out roads and flooded rivers;
• remoteness of Novgorod. The northern city was hidden by dense forests; the Mongol army could not fight effectively in such terrain.

On the way back, Batu besieged the small town of Kozelsk, which held out for 7 weeks, after which it was taken and razed to the ground. Khan nicknamed it “Evil City.”

In 1240, Batu returned to Rus', this time to the southern lands. Kyiv fell first. In 1241, the Galicia-Volyn principality was attacked. After this, the nomads leave for Europe, but suffer a number of failures and return.

In 1243, on the border with the south of Rus', Batu founded the state of the Golden Horde with its capital in the city of Saray. After which the disunited Russian lands recognized their vassal status, while the statehood of Rus' was preserved, as was religion. It is worth noting that the Golden Horde khans adhered to religious tolerance in their policies. The Russians were not forced to forget Orthodoxy, and the Tatar-Mongols themselves accepted Islam only in 1312.

However, in political and economic terms, during this period the Mongol-Tatar yoke was established in Rus'. The Baskaks exercised control over the Russian princes, and they also collected tribute.

Punitive detachments were sent to those who disagreed with the khan’s policies. Rus' lived in fear and destruction.

Overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke

Ivan 3 tears up the Khan's letter

He won his first victory over the Mongols on the Kulikovo Field. After 1380, the yoke continued for 100 years. Only in 1480 did the famous standing on the river take place. Eel. Confrontation between Khan Akhmat. The Khan retreated, making it clear that he no longer had any claims to Rus'. Thus came the end of the Tatar-Mongol yoke in Rus'.

Reasons for the defeat of the Mongol-Tatars:

• the unification of Russian principalities around Moscow;
• reforms in the Russian army;
• strife within the Golden Horde
• weakening of the Mongol army.

Consequences of the yoke

The yoke lasted 243 years. Rus' was in stagnation and only under Ivan III the revival of the Russian state, its culture and power began. The influence of the Mongol-Tatar yoke had an extremely negative impact on the development of the country and slowed it down in comparison with other large states. The lag affected many subsequent centuries.

The Mongol-Tatar yoke is the period of the capture of Rus' by the Mongol-Tatars in the 13th-15th centuries. The Mongol-Tatar yoke lasted for 243 years.

The truth about the Mongol-Tatar yoke

The Russian princes at that time were in a state of hostility, so they could not give a worthy rebuff to the invaders. Despite the fact that the Cumans came to the rescue, the Tatar-Mongol army quickly seized the advantage.

The first direct clash between the troops took place on the Kalka River, on May 31, 1223, and was lost quite quickly. Even then it became clear that our army would not be able to defeat the Tatar-Mongols, but the enemy’s onslaught was held back for quite some time.

In the winter of 1237, a targeted invasion of the main Tatar-Mongol troops into the territory of Rus' began. This time the enemy army was commanded by the grandson of Genghis Khan, Batu. The army of nomads managed to move quite quickly into the interior of the country, plundering the principalities in turn and killing everyone who tried to resist as they went along.

Main dates of the capture of Rus' by the Tatar-Mongols

• 1223 The Tatar-Mongols approached the border of Rus';
• May 31, 1223. First battle;
• Winter 1237. The beginning of a targeted invasion of Rus';
• 1237 Ryazan and Kolomna were captured. The Ryazan principality fell;
• March 4, 1238. Killed Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich. The city of Vladimir is captured;
• Autumn 1239. Chernigov captured. The Principality of Chernigov fell;
• 1240 Kyiv is captured. The Principality of Kiev fell;
• 1241 The Galician-Volyn principality fell;
• 1480 Overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke.

Reasons for the fall of Rus' under the onslaught of the Mongol-Tatars

• lack of a unified organization in the ranks of Russian soldiers;
• numerical superiority of the enemy;
• weakness of the command of the Russian army;
• poorly organized mutual assistance on the part of disparate princes;
• underestimation of enemy forces and numbers.

Features of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Rus'

The establishment of the Mongol-Tatar yoke with new laws and orders began in Rus'.

Actual center political life became Vladimir, it was from there that the Tatar-Mongol khan exercised his control.

The essence of the management of the Tatar-Mongol yoke was that Khan awarded the label for reign at his own discretion and completely controlled all territories of the country. This increased the enmity between the princes.

Feudal fragmentation of territories was encouraged in every possible way, as this reduced the likelihood of a centralized rebellion.

Tribute was regularly collected from the population, the “Horde exit.” The collection of money was carried out by special officials - Baskaks, who showed extreme cruelty and did not shy away from kidnappings and murders.

Consequences of the Mongol-Tatar conquest

The consequences of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Rus' were terrible.

• Many cities and villages were destroyed, people were killed;
• Agriculture, handicrafts and art fell into decline;
• Feudal fragmentation increased significantly;
• The population has decreased significantly;
• Rus' began to noticeably lag behind Europe in development.

The end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke

Complete liberation from the Mongol-Tatar yoke occurred only in 1480, when Grand Duke Ivan III refused to pay money to the horde and declared the independence of Rus'.