Culture of Western Europe in the 16th-17th centuries. Culture of Western Europe in the 16th-17th centuries Causes of the Thirty Years' War (protracted) (1618–1648)

The 16th century is a century of great spiritual, cultural, political, religious changes and upheavals in the life of Europe.

By the end of the 15th century. The culture of the Renaissance (Renaissance), which originated in the Italian city-states back in the 14th century, spread to other countries of Western Europe.

The turbulent processes of that era caused profound changes in the ideology of Western European society.

Representatives of humanism opposed secular sciences and education to church-scholastic scholarship. Secular (humanitarian) sciences studied not God with his hypostases, but man, his relationships with other people and his aspirations, using not a scholastically applied syllogism, but observation, experience, rationalistic assessments and conclusions.

Humanism XV-XVI centuries. did not become a movement that captured the broad masses of the people. The culture of the Renaissance was the property of a relatively small layer of educated people from different European countries, connected by common scientific, philosophical, aesthetic interests, who communicated using the common European language of that time - Latin. Most humanists had a negative attitude towards religious movements, including reformation ones, whose participants, in turn, recognized only the religious form of ideology and were hostile to deism and atheism.

Printing, invented in the mid-15th century, played an important role in the widespread dissemination of both religious and secular ideas. and received widespread use in the 16th century.

N. Machiavelli's teaching on state and politics.

One of the first theorists of the new era was the Italian Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527). Machiavelli for a long time was an official of the Florentine Republic with access to a number of state secrets. The life and work of Machiavelli date back to the period of the beginning of the decline of Italy, until the 16th century. formerly the most advanced country in Western Europe. The writings of Machiavelli laid the foundation for the political and legal ideology of the New Age. His political teaching was free from theology; it is based on the study of the activities of contemporary governments, the experience of states of the Ancient world, and Machiavelli’s ideas about the interests and aspirations of participants in political life.

Machiavelli viewed the state (regardless of its form) as a kind of relationship between the government and its subjects, based on the fear or love of the latter. The state is unshakable if the government does not give rise to conspiracies and disturbances, if the fear of its subjects does not develop into hatred, and love into contempt.

Machiavelli's focus is on the real ability of government to command its subjects. The book “The Prince” and other works contain a number of rules and practical recommendations based on his idea of ​​the passions and aspirations of people and social groups, on examples of history and contemporary practice of Italian and other states.

After writing the treatise "The Prince" (1512), Machiavelli became a European celebrity. A very ambiguous fame pursues him: on the one hand, N. Machiavelli formulated the subject political science, but he is condemned for creating a blasphemous work (with anti-Christian philosophy).

In his opinion, there are three forces in history: God, Fate and the Great Personality. Machiavelli was the first to pay attention to the role of personality in history.

The main features of his teaching:

1. Humanism: “A person can do anything: change the will of God, change his destiny, a person can be great even in crime. A person can change the course of history.”

2. Anti-fatalism: the desire to change one’s destiny.

3. Realism. Described what is there.

The essence of the treatise "The Sovereign" is the doctrine of politics.

A) Politics is an experimental science about the real state of things. He studies the world of power as it is.

B) Politics is the science of ways to seize and retain power. The first formulated the concept of power. Power is a state of dominance and submission.

C) Politics is a purposeful type of human activity. The goal is always the same - to support and offer power.

D) Politics is a special immoral sphere public life, in the struggle for power one cannot be guided by moral criteria. Moral judgment cannot be used in assessing political actions.

D) Politics is autonomous in relation to religion.

E) Politics is a sphere where every end justifies the means.

G) Politics is an art. Politics cannot be taught, personality is of paramount importance. There are no permanent means of success in politics. The choice of means depends on the situation.

Basics of power:

1. Material foundations - strength. Numerous loyal army. The politician himself must have the principles of a commander.

2. Power must have a social support - the people. (Machiavelli recommends relying on the people; it is better to exterminate the aristocracy.)

3. Psychological grounds (feelings). The people should love and (more) fear the ruler. There are psychological feelings that are harmful to power - hatred and contempt. You can't rob people. Contempt is caused by the inactivity of the ruler, his cowardice. The policy of the "golden mean". The ruler must learn to be unkind (the ability to lie, kill). The ruler must appear to be a great man.

Machiavelli considered the security of the individual and the inviolability of property to be the goal of the state and the basis of its strength. The most dangerous thing for a ruler, Machiavelli tirelessly repeated, is to encroach on the property of his subjects - this inevitably gives rise to hatred (and you will never rob so much that there is not a knife left). Machiavelli called the inviolability of private property, as well as the security of the individual, the benefits of freedom and considered the goal and basis of the strength of the state.

Machiavelli reproduces Polybius's ideas about the emergence of the state and the cycle of forms of government; Following the ancient authors, he gives preference to a mixed (monarchy, aristocracy and democracy) form.

Religion must be one of the attributes of the state and must have state status. The harm of Christianity for the state, because weakness of state value in the state.

Political ideal (dual).

1. The most optimal is the Florentine Republic.

2. In the treatise "The Prince", absolute monarchy is the best form of government. The creation of a unified Italian state justified any means necessary.

The works of Machiavelli had a tremendous influence on the subsequent development of political and legal ideology. They formulated and substantiated the main program demands of the bourgeoisie: the inviolability of private property, the security of person and property, the republic as the best remedy ensuring the “benefits of freedom”, condemnation of the feudal nobility, subordination of religion to politics and a number of others. The most insightful ideologists of the bourgeoisie highly appreciated Machiavelli's methodology, especially the liberation of politics from theology, the rationalistic explanation of state and law, and the desire to determine their connection with the interests of people.

10 question. The doctrine of Jean Bodin about state and law.

J. BODIN (1530-1596). Lawyer, political figure, was elected from the third estate to the Estates General. He is a theorist of absolutism in France. He is the creator of state law. "6 books about the republic." For the first time he established the concept of sovereignty as an obligatory feature of the state.

State- right control of many families, vested with supreme power.

1) The state acts in accordance with justice, natural and divine laws.

2) The family is the main basis of the state. Domestic power is similar to political power, but governs the private domain, while political government governs the common property. But this power should not absorb family life and private property. Family power must be united and belong to the husband. He opposed slavery.

3) Supreme power - constant And absolute. A person in authority can make any laws; he is subject to divine and natural law and is above human laws.

The structure of the supreme power (form of government):

1) Monarchy

2) Aristocracy

3) Democracy

Regarding perverted forms, Boden notes that these are different qualities of the same forms of power, but are by no means independent. He also rejects mixed forms, because they lose to the unity of power.

Boden believed that monarchy- best form. Other forms of government can only exist in small states. The monarchy must certainly be hereditary and transmitted by primogeniture. Succession to the throne by a woman is not allowed, as it is contrary to natural law. The division of state power between several heirs is also not allowed. The power of the monarch is limited only by divine and natural law.

To maintain calm in the state, the ruler must stand above party interests, and this can only be achieved in a monarchy.

Bodin highly appreciates the role of the States General, which represents the interests of all three classes and restrains the desire of the supreme power for arbitrariness, publicizing abuses. The prerogative of the States General to give consent to new taxes is especially important, because You cannot take someone else's property without the consent of its owner. Thus Bodin contradicts himself on this issue.

Political changes in the state should not be made at once. Of all the reasons leading to revolutions, Boden gives first place to the uneven distribution of wealth.

Considers religion from the point of view of the state and state benefit. He considered it necessary to prohibit all debates about religion, because they shake the truth in the minds and breed discord. State power must stand above differences of religions and maintain a balance between them. You cannot force anyone to believe, i.e. Boden defends freedom of conscience.

"Theory of climate and soil." Fertility affects the difference in rights, because the inhabitants of barren lands are more enterprising, prone to crafts and arts. The inhabitants of fertile lands have no such motives. All this is reflected in the state structure: the brave inhabitants of the North and the mountaineers cannot stand any government other than that of the people or establish elective monarchies. The pampered inhabitants of the south and plains easily submit to the authority of a single ruler.

…………………….

The theory of state sovereignty. Political doctrine of J. Bodin

Religious wars significantly interfered with the development of industry and trade; France was breaking up into a number of hostile and warring camps.

Jean Bodin (1530-1596) substantiated absolutism and criticized the monarchomachs during the period of religious wars. A lawyer by training, a deputy of the third estate at the Estates General in Blois, Bodin opposed feudal decentralization and religious fanaticism. In the essay “Six Books about the State” (published in French in 1576, in Latin for all of Europe in 1584) Bodin first formulated and broadly substantiated the concept of sovereignty as an essential feature of the state: “Sovereignty is the absolute and permanent power of the state... Absolute power over citizens and subjects."

The power of the state is constant and absolute; it is the highest and independent power both within the country and in relations with foreign powers. Above the bearer of sovereign power are only God and the laws of nature.

Sovereignty, according to Bodin, means, first of all, the independence of the state from the Pope, from the church, from the German emperor, from the estates, from another state. Sovereignty as the supreme power includes the rights to make and repeal laws, declare war and make peace, appoint senior officials, exercise the supreme court, the right to pardon, the right to mint coins, establish weights and measures, and collect taxes.

In his doctrine of the state, Boden largely follows Aristotle, but not the Aristotle distorted and mystified by medieval scholasticism, but the true Aristotle, interpreted in the light of the subsequent history of political and legal institutions.

Boden defines the state as the legal administration of many families and what they have in common, on the basis of sovereign power. The state is precisely legal governance, consistent with justice and the laws of nature; by law it differs, as Cicero noted, from a gang of robbers or pirates, with whom one cannot enter into alliances, enter into agreements, wage war, or make peace, and who are not subject to the general laws of war.

Boden calls the family the foundation and cell of the state. The state is a collection of families, not individuals; if they are not united into families, they will die out, but the people who make up the state do not die. Like Aristotle, he distinguishes three types of power relations in the family: marital, parental and lordly. Unlike Aristotle, Bodin was not a supporter of slavery. He considered slavery not always natural, a source of unrest and unrest in the state. Boden stood for the gradual abolition of relations of feudal dependence close to slavery where they still existed.

Bodin is one of the first critics of Utopia. Approving some thoughts of the “unforgettable Chancellor of England T. More” about the state order of Utopia, Boden persistently disputes his main idea. A state based on community of property, Bodin wrote, “would be directly opposed to the laws of God and nature.” Private property is related to the laws of nature, since “natural law prohibits taking what belongs to others.” “Property equality is disastrous for states,” Bodin tirelessly repeated. Rich and poor exist in every state; if you try to equalize them, invalidate obligations, cancel contracts and debts, “then you can’t expect anything other than the complete destruction of the state, because any ties connecting one person with another are lost.”

Boden attached primary importance to the form of the state. He rejects the widespread division of state forms into correct and incorrect, since it expresses only a subjective assessment of existing states. Supporters of the rule of one person call it “monarchy,” opponents call it “tyranny.” Adherents of minority power call such power “aristocracy”, those dissatisfied with it - “oligarchy”, etc. Meanwhile, Bodin reasoned, the essence of the matter is only in who owns sovereignty, real power: one, a few or the majority. On the same basis, Bodin denies the mixed form of the state - power cannot be divided “equally”, some element will be of decisive importance in the state; whoever has the highest power to make laws is the state as a whole.

Boden had a negative attitude towards democracy: in a democratic state there are a lot of laws and authorities, but the common cause is in decline; the crowd, the people, cannot establish anything good, persecutes the rich, uproots and expels the best, elects the worst.

Bodin also did not approve of the aristocracy, a state where power belongs to a college of nobles: among the aristocrats there are few smart people, as a result a stupid majority rules; decision-making is associated with discord, with the struggle of parties and groups; the state does not energetically enough suppress the indignation of the people, who are always rebelling against the nobles. For the same reasons, an aristocracy is unthinkable in a large state.

Boden considered the monarchy to be the best form of state. The monarch, as naturally as the god of the Universe, commands his subjects without interference; he has power in his own right (first acquired by force, then transferred by right of inheritance).

Referring to reason and history, Bodin wrote that initially all states were created by conquest and violence (and not by voluntary agreement, as some tyrant fighters claimed). As a result of a just war, master (patrimonial) states arose, in which the monarch rules over his subjects as the father of a family. Such are the monarchies of the East.

In Europe, Bodin reasoned, master states turned into “legal monarchies,” in which the people obey the laws of the monarch, and the monarch obeys the laws of nature, leaving natural freedom and property to the subjects. The monarch must not violate the “laws of God and the laws of nature,” which arose before all states and are inherent in all peoples. The monarch, according to Bodin, must be true to his word, observe treaties and promises, regulations on succession to the throne, the inalienability of state property, respect personal freedom, family relationships, religion (the more there are, the better - there will be less opportunity to create influential warring factions), inviolability of property.

Boden disputed the widespread opinion among tyrant fighters that the monarchy should be electoral - during the election period, unrest, discord and civil strife are inevitable; the elected monarch does not care about the common property, since it is unknown who will succeed him on the throne; The hereditary monarchy, which is also traditional in France, does not have these shortcomings (tyranny fighters tried to prove that previously monarchs were elected).

Bodin considered the best royal monarchy - a state in which the supreme power (sovereignty) belongs entirely to the monarch, and the management of the country (the procedure for appointment to positions) is complex, that is, combining aristocratic principles (for a number of positions, mainly in the court and army, the king appoints only nobles) and democratic (some positions are available to everyone).

Question 11. Utopian socialism in England in the 16th century. (“Utopia” by T. More).

Initially, the ideas of socialism were clothed in the thoughts of Christian ethical authors about the kingdom of God. How the complete idea developed in the 16th and 17th centuries. This is the time of the emergence of new capitalist forms of exploitation.

T. MOR (1478-1535) the founder of the idea. In 1516, “The Golden Book, as useful as it is amusing, about the best structure of the state and about the new island of Utopia” was published. Thomas More is a lawyer by training; “Utopia” was created by him during a trip to Flanders as part of the embassy.

“Utopia” is translated from Greek as “a place that does not exist.” Part 1 - criticism of the political and social vices of modern European states. Part 2 is about the non-existent island of Utopia.

Points to a large number of the nobility, robbing the people, the authorities, instead of punishing the guilty, attacking the poor with bloody laws. The state is a conspiracy of the rich, advocating for their well-being under the guise of the state. Private property is evil.

The island of Utopia is not far from America, on it 54 cities live in complete communism. The family is the basic social unit. In the city, the family is engaged in a certain craft. In a village family there are 40 adults (in a city - from 10 to 16 people), if a child wants to engage in another craft, he must be adopted by another family.

Around the city there are fields that are cultivated by the townspeople one by one. Some of the townspeople move there, giving way to those who, after 2 years of working in the fields, return to the city. All produced products are transported to public houses, from here the head of the family receives everything necessary for the family. They have lunch in common dining rooms. Working day 6 hours.

The rise in productivity and abundance is explained by:

1. The absence of idle people (rich people, warriors, beggars)

2. Women work like men

3. Officials and those called upon to engage in science are exempt from physical labor. If they do not justify themselves, they are returned to physical labor.

4. There are fewer needs themselves, because there are no empty whims and imaginary needs. Everyone wears the same clothes, houses are determined by lot; gold and silver are kept only in case of external war.

There is no community of wives. Marriages are strictly protected by law and are indissoluble. Divorce is possible in case of adultery of the spouse, or unbearable hardship of character. The person responsible for the divorce cannot remarry. An insult to the marriage union is lifelong slavery.

Unpleasant work is performed by slaves and dedicated people. Slaves - those convicted of a crime and ransomed abroad, sentenced to death, as well as prisoners of war taken with weapons in their hands.

The governance of 54 cities is carried out on an elective basis. All officials are elected for 1 year with the exception of the prince, who is elected for life. Important affairs of the city are decided by the Assembly of Officials, and sometimes by the People's Assembly.

30 families elect phylarch. At the head of the 10 phylarchs stands protophylarch.

Head of State prince and C enat(located in the capital to resolve general affairs) three deputies from each city.

The religions of the Utopians are different, but they all converge on the worship of a single deity. There are few laws, no lawyers.

The social structure of Utopia is built on 2 principles that were denied in the ancient world: equality of people and the sanctity of work.

Europe is in transition. In the XVI-XVII centuries. the appearance was taking shape modern Europe, there was a turn from traditional to new society. During social reconstruction, the usual norms of relations between people are violated, the idea of ​​“what is good and what is bad” changes, the belief in a miraculous event, a happy or unfortunate surprise, and the ability to implement the most daring plans intensifies. And indeed, over several decades of the 16th century. Europeans were able to see how the ruler of Spain, the former southwestern outskirts of Europe, turned into the ruler of a power “in which the sun never sets,” and his ordinary subjects F. Cortes and F. Pizarro managed to capture and subjugate huge and rich overseas countries territories. In those same years, in the southeast of the continent, on the ruins of the Byzantine Empire, the state of the Ottoman Turks was rapidly expanding. Against this background, the most daring plans did not seem fantastic.

Origins of the Thirty Years' War. In the first half of the 17th century. The place for such plans was Central Europe, whose countries had been drawn into a protracted war since 1618. The arena of the conflict was the German lands, and the reason for it was religious differences. The Habsburgs, emperors of Germany, ruled simultaneously in Spain and Austria. The emperors of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, which arose in the 10th century, were chosen from the Austrian Habsburgs.

The Habsburgs were the main defenders of Catholicism. The Czech Republic (Bohemia) was the most economically developed part of their possessions. But many Protestants lived in its lands. And they tried to invite themselves a king from among the Protestant German princes. This led to an armed conflict that resulted in the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648).

Cardinal Armand-Jean
Duplessis, Duke of Richelieu

Mixture of religious and political interests. Gradually, countries neighboring Germany were involved in hostilities: Denmark, Sweden. Religious sympathies and the desire to support fellow believers mixed with political interests. Thus, France saw itself as a threat in the fact that on its eastern and southwestern borders there were states under the rule of one family - the House of Habsburg. Therefore, the de facto head of the French government, Cardinal Richelieu, considered it necessary to support the opponents of the German Catholic emperor, although he himself was a Catholic.

12 years after the start of the war, at the turn of the 20-30s, the advantage was on the side of the Catholic (imperial) forces. The emperor's commander, the Czech nobleman Albrecht Wallenstein (1583-1634), defeated the Danish defenders of Protestantism. The personality of this person perfectly conveys the “spirit of the times.” Ambitious, cruel, purposeful, he was obsessed with the thirst for wealth and power, and it is difficult to say what was more important to him. He himself offered the emperor his services as commander. The most attractive thing about this proposal was the promise of the applicant for command to create an army that would support itself (at the expense of the civilians on whose lands it was stationed). Wallenstein showed in practice how “war can feed war.” Having united an army of 24 thousand people under his command, Wallenstein showed brilliant leadership talents.

Wallenstein.
Copper engraving

He differed from an ordinary commander of a mercenary army not only in the scale of his activities, but also in the fact that he knew how to carefully and comprehensively organize his activities. So, he himself selected a composition of officers, securely tied them to himself with monetary interests, and organized the activities of various manufactories in his possessions for the production of ammunition and equipment for the needs of the army. The soldiers and officers were completely devoted to their skillful, courageous and generous commander. Wallenstein's military successes saved the prestige of the empire, but his too open desire for power alarmed the emperor and his entourage. Therefore, after successful operations against the Danes, Wallenstein was removed from command of the army he had created on the grounds that the danger had passed. Wallenstein demonstrated humility, but harbored a vindictive desire to harm his ungrateful master.

Plans of the Swedish king. By this time in Sweden, the energetic and enterprising King Gustav II Adolf (1594-1632) was completing the reorganization of his army, wondering where to send this military machine he had created. The Swedish king was interested in the southern coast of the Baltic and the possibilities of control over trade routes. Richelieu, through his agents, pushed the Swedish king to support German Protestants. The crafty cardinal thought about weakening the position of his competitors - the Habsburgs, and for the Swedish king the most important thing was the transformation of the Baltic Sea into an “inner lake” of the Kingdom of Sweden. In addition, he thought about creating a state in Central Europe under the authority of the Swedish crown. It is difficult to say now what the specific goals of Gustav Adolf were; most likely, he expected that “the war will show the plan.”

Swedish army. By the time the Swedish army landed on German territory on the coast of Pomerania on July 6, 1630, its commander had done much to ensure that his plans could be realized. The Swedish army was noticeably different from others in organization and even weapons. It consisted of Swedes and Finns, conscripted. (This army can be considered a prototype of the national army.)

And the emperor’s army, according to tradition, consisted of mercenaries of different nationalities. The Swedish army also included mercenaries from Scottish and Czech Protestants, but the main striking force was still Swedish-Finnish units. Their soldiers and officers received regular salaries, and they were strictly forbidden to oppress and rob the civilian population. Violation of the ban was strictly punished. Gustav Adolf supplied his army with powerful artillery, including small cannons. This was an important innovation. The soldiers were provided with warm clothing, which allowed them to continue fighting even in winter. But then, with the onset of the autumn thaw and cold weather, the warring armies were usually placed in winter quarters and stopped active operations until the spring warmth.

Swedish warriors of the era of Gustavus Adolf
(from left to right): musketeer, dragoon,
cuirassier, pikeman.

Swedish offensive. In the summer of 1630, the Swedish king began his victorious march through the territory of the German principalities. One after another, several important fortified cities were taken. Quick and easy victories glorified the name of the Swedish king. Protestants throughout Europe saw in the Swedish monarch the embodiment of all chivalrous virtues, and Richelieu began to understand that the power he had caused was becoming uncontrollable.

The imperial army opposing the Swedes was led by the old (he was 70 years old) commander Johann Tilly. He was a battle-tested, honest in his own way, undoubtedly a talented military leader, reliable, responsible, but lacking that brilliance, that spark of military talent that was endowed with both his opponent Gustav Adolf and his rival Wallenstein. The warring armies maneuvered through the lands of Pomerania for some time, capturing and devastating cities and villages, then moved to the territory of Saxony, whose ruler was an ally of Gustav Adolf. The Swedes needed a big, victorious battle and, if possible, as quickly as possible. They had nowhere to wait for reinforcements, while Tilly expected additional forces to arrive soon. The Saxon elector was the one who hurried events the most, since it was his lands that were being ravaged by two armies.

Read also other topics Part III ""European Concert": the struggle for political balance" section “West, Russia, East in the battles of the 17th – early 18th centuries”:

• 9. "Swedish flood": from Breitenfeld to Lützen (September 7, 1631-November 16, 1632)
  • Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries. Causes of the Thirty Years' War
  • Battle of Breitenfeld. Winter Campaign of Gustavus Adolphus
• 10. Marston Moor and Nasby (2 July 1644, 14 June 1645)
  • Marston Moor. Victory of the parliamentary army. Cromwell's army reform
• 11. “Dynastic wars” in Europe: the struggle “for the Spanish inheritance” at the beginning of the 18th century.
• 12. European conflicts are becoming global
  • War of the Austrian Succession. Austro-Prussian conflict
  • Frederick II: victories and defeats. Treaty of Hubertusburg.
• 13. Russia and the “Swedish question”

XVI century passed under the sign humanism, which covered Italy, R.V., Germany, Hungary, France, England, Spain, Portugal, Poland, and partly Scandinavia. There were various currents of humanism, from Epicurean-hedonistic to civil. The centers of Renaissance culture, along with the burgher-patrician cities, became the courts of nobles, sovereigns, nobles, where refined art was encouraged artistic creativity, which often gave the culture features of elitism. The role of patronage of the arts increased, the social status of artists and scientists changed, who were forced to work on orders from the nobility, obtaining positions at courts. Prices for works of art in Italy of the 15th century. - life-size marble statue - 100-120 florins; bronze statue of the Apostle Matthew - 945 florins + 93 for the architectural design of the niche; marble bas-relief - 30-50 florins; Michelangelo - for the Pietà - 150 Roman ducats; Donatello for the monument to Gattamelatta - 1650 crown. Lear; curtain painting - 1.25 florins; altar image of the Siena family - 120 florins; altarpiece by Benozzo Gozzoli - 75 florins; in papal Rome for each fresco in the Sistine Chapel at the end of the 15th century. They paid the masters 250 florins, and the authors of the works were Botticelli, Rossellino, Perugino, Pinturicchio, Ghirlandaio; in general, painting the walls cost Sixtus IV 3000 florins. For comparison, an ordinary house cost 100-200 florins; “improved layout” - 300-400 florins (with 3 floors, but not a palazzo); Donatello paid 14-15 florins a year to rent the house; but it was possible to rent housing for a smaller amount from 6 to 35 florins. Rent of land (43.6 m2) - 3-4 florins; a pair of oxen - 25-27 florins; horse - 70-85 florins; cow - 15 -20 florins; the cost of a minimum set of products (bread, meat, olive oil, wine, vegetables, fruits) for a family of 4 people in the first quarter of the 15th century. = 30 florins per year. A visiting maid (helping with housework) received 7-8 florins a year; decent outerwear - 4-7 florins; but the rich dressed well, so Pitti mentions a caftan worth 100 florins; women's dress - 75 florins. The price of a work of art included the cost of the material, which in marble items = 1/3, in bronze items - ½ of the amount paid by the customer, i.e. fee = ½ of the total amount. The craftsmen demanded an advance. Mantegna at the Gonzaga court received 50 ducats (600 per year) monthly, + housing, grain, firewood, + gifts and bonuses. When Leonardo da Vinci left for Milan in 1482, he was promised 2,000 ducats a year; but with Lodovico Moro’s income of 650,000 Milanese ducats, Leonardo was not only an artist, but also a wide-ranging military engineer. True, it is unknown whether da Vinci received the promised amount.

The Reformation, and then the Counter-Reformation, led to a crisis of humanism, hitting the cheerful Renaissance worldview, leading to its weakening (40s of the 16th century), calling into question the feasibility of many of its ideals and emphasizing their illusory nature.

In the XVI-XVII centuries. made great progress natural science in Western Europe. This was associated with a radical change in the development of science, the rise of production and material culture in general. The development of industry and numerous inventions gave impetus to the theoretical development of many scientific issues. The increasingly widespread use of certain mechanisms (water, wheel) expands the range of phenomena available for study in the field of mechanics and requires the solution of some problems of mechanics and mathematics. For example, the practical needs of art required determining the flight trajectory of a cannonball fired from a cannon, this led to the study of the laws of fall and movement of bodies in general, etc. The rise of material production armed the natural scientist with new tools and means of scientific work. The development of craft technology prepared inventions in the 16th-17th centuries. many precision instruments essential for the development of science. More advanced clocks, microscopes, telescopes, thermometers, hygrometers, and mercury barometers appear. Parchment was replaced by paper in the 15th century. Book printing is developing.

The first branch of natural science in which the new scientific spirit manifested itself was astronomy, where the geocentric theory was replaced by the heliocentric one. The foundations of the geocentric system were substantiated by Aristotle, mathematically developed by Hipparchus (II century BC), Ptolemy (II century AD), and adopted by the Catholic Church. The author of the heliocentric system was Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), who proposed that the Earth revolves around the Sun (in 1507). He devoted the rest of his life to developing this doctrine. He created the work “On the Circulation of Heavenly Circles”, published in the year of his death (shortly) in 1543. He received the first copy on the day of his death. The Catholic Church spoke out. Luther: “As the scriptures indicate, Joshua commanded the sun to stand still, not the earth.” Copernicus' ideas were continued in the works of Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) (burned in Rome in the Piazza des Flowers in 1600), who created a picture of the universe, the world is infinite and filled with many celestial bodies, and the Sun is one of the stars. These star-suns have planets orbiting around them, similar to the Earth and even inhabited by living beings. For which Bruno became a heretic and, after 8 years of imprisonment, torture, was burned. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) (Pisan), lived in Florence, taught at the universities of Pisa, Padua, in 1610 in Florence, where he became the “first philosopher and mathematician” of the Duke of Tuscany. Galileo invented (used) the telescope; in 1608 in Holland, he published what he saw through the telescope in the Starry Messenger (1610). In 1632, Galileo published “Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief Systems of the World, Ptolemaic and Copernican.” In 1633, Galileo was summoned to trial in Rome (Inquisition), where he renounced his views (“But, after all, she is spinning!”). He was found guilty of supporting doctrines "false and contrary to holy and divine scripture" and sentenced to imprisonment, replaced by staying in a place assigned to him. Until his death, Galileo remained under the supervision of the Inquisition and was deprived of the right to publish his works. In 1638, in Holland, he managed to publish the book “Conversations and Mathematical Proofs Concerning Two New Branches of Science Relating to Mechanics and Local Motion,” which summarized the results of his researchers in the field of mechanics. The final point in the victory of the heliocentric theory was put by Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) (compiled horoscopes for Wallenstein), studied in Tübingen, lived in Graz, Prague, Linz, Regensburg. Studying the works of Tycho Brahe's observations of the movement of the planet Mars, Kepler came to the conclusion that the planets move in ellipses, at one of the foci of which the Sun is located (Kepler's 1st law), and that the speed of the planets increases as they approach the Sun (2- Kepler's law). First, these laws were established for Mars, and later for other planets. Kepler's discoveries were published in 1609 in the work "New Astronomy, Causally Based, or Celestial Physics, Set forth in Researches on the Motions of the Star Mars, According to the Observations of the Most Noble Husband Tycho Brahe." In his work “The Harmony of the World” (1619), Kepler formulated the 3rd law, which establishes a connection between the periods of revolution of the planets and their distance from the Sun. In 1627, Kepler published new, more accurate tables of planetary motion (“Rudolph’s Tables”).

A turning point in development physicists came later than in astronomy. Throughout the 16th century. Individual studies appear that reveal an approach to the study of the surrounding person, alien to scholasticism, to the study of the surrounding material world. These include the studies of Leonardo da Vinci, the Dutch engineer Stevin, who developed some problems of hydrostatistics (“Principles of Equilibrium” (1586), the English scientist William Herbert (1540-1603), who in his work “On the Magnet” gave a description of the phenomena magnetism and electrical phenomena.

Leonardo was the first to propose the use of a cylinder with a piston, using air as the driving force. And he made a working model of a wind weapon that fired at a distance of 800 meters. He expected to fly from Monte Cecheri (Swan Mountain). The lifebuoy invented by Leonardo was a truly necessary invention. What material Leonardo intended to use is unknown, but the counterpart of his invention later became a traditional part of the ship and took the form of a cortical circle covered with canvas.

A turning point in physics came in the 17th century. and was associated with the activities of Galileo, his physics was based on experience and the use of precise mathematical methods for analysis and generalization of experimental data. Galileo - conducted a series of experiments and proved that all bodies under the influence of gravity fall with the same acceleration. To do this, he dropped balls of different weights from the Leaning Tower of Pisa, formulated (not in its final form) the law of inertia, the law of independence of the action of forces, derived the equation of uniform accelerated motion, determined the trajectory of the thrown body, began studying the oscillations of the pendulum, etc. All this gives reason to consider Galileo the founder of kinematics and dynamics. A student of Torricelli (1608-1647) developed some questions of hydrodynamics, began the study of atmospheric pressure and created a mercury barometer. Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) continued his study of atmospheric pressure and proved that the column of mercury in the barometer is maintained precisely by atmospheric pressure. He also discovered the law on the transfer of pressure in liquids and gases. Optics is developing. In addition to the invention of the telescope and microscope, the development of theoretical optics (the law of light refraction) is underway.

At this time, the foundations of modern algebra. Several Italian mathematicians, including Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576), by the middle of the 16th century. will develop a method for solving 3rd degree equations (Cardano formula). One of Cardano's students discovers a way to solve 4th degree equations. At the beginning of the 17th century. logarithms are invented, the first tables of which (by Napier) were published in 1614. A system of mathematical symbols is developed for writing algebraic expressions (signs for addition, subtraction, exponentiation, root extraction, equality, parentheses, etc.), this was especially evident in the works Rene Descartes, who gave them almost modern look. Trigonometry is developing. Rene Descartes created analytical geometry.

In area botany and zoology Multi-volume descriptions of plants and animals are created, complete with sketches. For example, the work of the Swiss botanist, zoologist, philologist Konrad Gesner (1516-1565) “History of Animals”. Botanical gardens were organized, first in Italy, then in other European countries. In the XV-XVI centuries. a passion for gardens comes, in Rome - with the popes, in Florence - with the Medici, with d'Este - in Tivoli (the outskirts of Rome), where there were 100 fountains, alleys, a garden of sculptures, stairs, trees and herbs grew. Architects who worked on gardens - Pirro Ligorio (1500-1583), he loved to create secret gardens, something reminiscent of a “green cabinet”; Giacomo da Vignola, who built Villa Giulia (Rome), Villa Lante. They made labyrinths from trees, which were in demand in England, and the labyrinths were carved from grass. This was done by Leonardo under Francis I. The height of the labyrinths was knee-high in the 17th century. became taller. There were also comic fountains (traps). But in 1543 there were no flowers in the gardens, only trees grew - beech, yew, stone and marble forms. As interest in botany grew, gardens consisting of ornamental grasses began to appear. The first was defeated in 1543 in Pisa, then in Padua (1545), in Florence (1550). Humanists began to observe the growth of plants and established their geographical origin. There were amateurs, for example, Michele Antonio, a Venetian patrician, collected herbariums, and then donated his treasures to the Marciana library. Palladio created gardens in Brenta that were an extension of architecture. Many Italian masters of gardening art worked throughout Europe at that time. King Charles VIII and his army were amazed by the villas and gardens of the Kingdom of Naples, which they captured in 1495. The artisans who followed them on their return to France that same year helped spread these ideas widely. None other than the French Huguenot Salomon de Caus (c. 1576-1626) became the link between the horticultural tradition of Italy and the rest of Europe. He traveled in 1605 to Italy before going to Brussels to create a garden for Archduke Albert. After 1610, Cowes went to England, where he worked for the royal family - Prince Henry at Richmond, the Queen at Somerset House and Greenwich, and at Hatfield House. In 1613, Kaus followed Princess Elisabeth, who was married to Frederick V, to Heidelberg. There the master designed the magnificent Hortus Palatinus gardens, which, unfortunately, have not survived.

For the first time, herbariums began to be compiled. The first natural science museums appeared. Successes are also emerging in the study human body. Physician Paracelsus (1493-1541), Girolamo Fracastoro (1480-1559), his work on infectious diseases was a milestone in epidemiology. Systematic and careful anatomical dissections begin. The forerunner of these ideas was Andrea Vesalius (1513-1564), the son of a Brussels pharmacist, court physician and surgeon, and from 1527 professor of anatomy in Padua, Pisa, Bologna, Basel; from 1543 the first surgeon at the court of Charles V, then Philip II. Accused of allegedly dissecting the body of a Spanish hidalgo who was not dead, but only in a lethargic state. For this he fell into the hands of the Inquisition, in the form of repentance he had to go to Jerusalem and atone for his sin - on the other hand, the ship was destroyed by a storm near Zante in 1564. Vesalius published the work “On the Structure of the Human Body.” The foundations of a correct theory of human blood circulation are created. This discovery was laid down by the works of Miguel Servetus and continued in the works of the English physician William Harvey (1578-1657). A famous surgeon was Ambroise Pare, who put an end to the terrible suffering of patients who had to endure the pain of cauterization with a hot iron after amputation, with the help of a simple dressing he invented. He came up with prosthetics and tried them on soldiers. He discovered that gunshot wounds were not poisonous and therefore did not need to be treated with boiling oil, as was then widely practiced. It is better to relieve pain with healing ointments and balms. He also advocated the need, in exceptional cases, to turn the baby over in the womb before giving birth. In England, Thomas Gale wrote a book on the treatment of gunshot wounds, John Woodwall dealt with the problem of amputation. In 1602, John Harvey began his practice; in 1628, he published a treatise on the activity of the heart and blood circulation. He was also one of the founders of embryology. He suggested that animals during the period of embryonic development go through the stages of development of the animal world. One of the founders of microscopic anatomy was the Italian Marcello Malpighi. Complementing Harvey, he completed the development of the scientific theory of blood circulation.

At the beginning of the 16th century. replaced, and sometimes in addition to, medieval alchemy comes iatrochemistry, i.e. medicinal chemistry. One of its founders was the physician and naturalist Theophrastus von Hohenheim (Paracelsus). Iatrochemists, believing that the processes occurring in a living organism are essentially chemical processes, were engaged in the research of new chemicals, suitable for the treatment of various diseases. In matters of chemical theory, iatrochemists have made little progress compared to their predecessors. As before, in their works the elements of all substances were called according to the ancient 4 elements (fire, air, water, earth), alchemically - “sulfur”, “mercury” (in the 16th century “salt” was added). In the second half of the 17th and early 18th centuries. some new substances were discovered. Thus, in 1669, the Hamburg amateur alchemist Brand discovered phosphorus (in 1680, R. Boyle independently obtained it).

The founders of the new chemical science are scientists of the 17th century. Holland Ya.B. Van Helmont and R. Boyle. Helmont was the first to correctly explain a number of chemical reactions of combination, decomposition, substitution, discovered carbon dioxide, calling it “forest gas” and introduced into scientific circulation the very concept of “gas” from the Greek. "chaos".

Typography. In the 16th century Printing capabilities began to be widely used. In 1518, Luther's letter against Eck, published in 1,400 copies, sold out in 2 days at the Frankfurt Fair. The works of W. von Hutten and Münzer were popular. In 1525, peasants distributed “12 articles”, which went through 25 editions. From 1522 to 1534, Luther's translation of the New Testament went through 85 editions. In total, during Luther’s lifetime, his translation of the Bible, in whole or in parts, was published 430 times. The dynamics of the growth of book production can be traced according to the following data: if before 1500 books of 35-45,000 titles were published in various countries of the world, then in the 16th century. - more than 242,000; in the 17th century - 972.300. From the invention of printing to 1700, 1,245,000 titles were published, and circulations increased from 300-350 in the 15th century. up to 1000-1200 in the 17th century. Printing has become firmly established throughout the world. In 1503, the first printing house appeared in Constantinople, then in Poland, Edinburgh (1508), Targovishte (1508). A book was published in Armenian in 1512 in Venice, in Ethiopian in 1513 in Rome, etc. Before 1500, about 77% of books were published in Latin, only in England and Spain at the beginning of the 16th century. More books were published in local languages ​​than in Latin. Half a century later the situation changed, in 1541-1550. of the 86 books in Spain, 14 were in Latin. An example of a large publishing manufactory can be called the enterprises of Anton Koberger. By the beginning of the 16th century. he became a prominent bookseller and publisher, and his enterprise in Nuremberg grew greatly. Large enterprises in the XVI-XVII centuries. there were few, small or medium-sized workshops, often family-owned, predominated. Their products are cheap prayer books, alphabet books, etc. Book fairs began to take shape - Lyon, Amsterdam, Frankfurt am Main (twice a year - on Easter and on St. Michael's Day), book catalogs began to be compiled, the initiator was Georg Willer. Later, the center of bookselling from the second half of the 16th century. becomes Leipzig. Gradually, book publishing in Germany began to lag behind Italian, French, and Dutch. In Basel in 1491, Johann Froben founded a printing house, and he was the first to pay royalties to authors. A special place in the 16th century. occupied by 4 entrepreneurs - Aldus Manutius, Henri Etienne, Christophe Plantin, Lodewijk Elsevier.

Aldus Pius Manutius(1446-1515) - “prince of printers”, head of a whole generation of printers. Born in Bassano, studied here, then in Ferrara. Having studied Greek, he founded a printing house in 1488 in Venice. He was killed here in 1515. He used antiqua fonts and invented the Italian italic - Aldino (Italica). Aldus Manutius arrived in Venice either in 1488 or 1489, after completing his studies in Rome and Ferrara. Under the influence of the ideas of humanism, he became inspired by the desire to revive ancient antiquity by publishing the works of Greek classics in the original language. In those days, many Greeks lived in Venice, fleeing there from the Ottoman invasion. That is why it was there that Ald took up the implementation of his plans and created a kind of printing and publishing complex in the very center of the city. The first book published in this printing house was Musaeus' poem about Hero and Leander. (1494). It was followed by the publication of Erotemata (1495), a Greek grammar that became a guide for several generations of students and scholars.

The most significant act of Aldus Manutius was the publication of the works of Aristotle in five volumes (1495-1498) and other Greek classics - Plato, Thucydides, Hesiod, Aristophanes, Herodotus, Xenophon, Euripides, Sophocles, Demosthenes. These publications created enormous fame for Aldus Manutius. They have been scientifically edited and tastefully presented. Following the example of the Platonic Academy and the Florentine Academy, founded by the Medici, the publisher rallied a circle of highly educated people around himself, calling it the New Aldian Academy. The circle provided assistance to the enlightened entrepreneur in the preparation of manuscripts.

For the publication of Roman authors, Ald decided to use an original font - italic, which was made for Ald by the Bolognese carver Francesco Raibolini, who then lived in Venice, from the famous Griffo family of jewelers. The Italians called this font Aldino, and the French - Italica.

In November 1502, the Venetian Senate, by a special decree, recognized Aldus as having the exclusive right to use his new fonts. An attempt on this patent threatened with a fine and confiscation of the printing house. He was perhaps the first publisher who dared to publish books with a circulation of up to 1000 copies. Being also a practical man, Ald did not want the books he published to serve only as amusement for the educated rich, but he strove to ensure that the books he published were in wide demand. To this end, he tried to reduce the cost of the book itself by cutting costs. The path to this lay through the creation of small-format volumes typed in compact font. A typical aldine (every major library has and is proud of such publications, at least in small quantities) is a small, convenient volume bound in wood and covered with leather. When packing for a trip, the owner could put a dozen of these books into his cash.

Despite all efforts to make the book accessible to a wide range of readers, its distribution encountered significant difficulties. In Venice alone in 1481-1501. There were about one hundred printing houses, the total output of which was about 2 million copies. Having been a scarce commodity before the invention of printing, books, as a result of the widespread use of new technology, were thrown onto the market in larger quantities than could be bought up. Ald was not the only one suffering from overproduction at that time. This became the common scourge of printers and publishers.

After the death of Alda in 1515 and until the moment when his son Paolo came of age and could already manage affairs, the enterprise was run by his closest relatives - the Azolanos. With great ambitions but little education, they took editing into their own hands, firing their best editors. The publishing house's affairs deteriorated sharply, and in 1529 it suspended work altogether for four years. The publishing house resumed its activities only in 1533, when Paolo Manuzio decided to restore the prestige of his father's enterprise. In the same year he published about ten books and maintained this level until 1539. The treasury of Greek literature was almost exhausted by Aldus himself, and therefore his son directed all his attention to the Roman classics. A huge contribution to science was his carefully edited editions of Cicero’s works and letters.

In 1540, Paolo Manuzio separated from the Azolano family and began to conduct publishing independently. Then the company was continued by his son Ald the Younger; after his death in 1597, the publishing house existed for some time by inertia, and then fell into decline and died out. The sign of this famous company - a dolphin and an anchor - was sometimes used later by other publishers.

Aldus Manutius the Elder was a man of humanistic views and tried to remain independent in relation to political and religious influences. His son and grandson were not distinguished by such principles and willingly offered their services to the Roman Curia. Pope Pius IV, aware of Paolo Manuzio's financial difficulties, invited him in 1561 as a technical adviser to the Vatican printing house, which he intended to make the center of Catholic propaganda. Paolo did not have the talent of an organizer, and under his leadership the papal printing house operated at first without much success. Only thanks to the persistence of Pope Sixtus V did it avoid complete collapse. After Paolo's death, Aldo Manuzio the Younger was brought in to lead it. The books that came out of Alda's printing house were called Aldines.

Henri Etienne(Stephanus) in 1504 or 1505 in Paris, not far from the university, he opened a printing house, where he began printing philosophical and theological treatises Etienne was a supporter of the new style of book design characteristic of the Renaissance, as evidenced by the frontispieces and initials in his publications, which are independent works of art. In 1520, the enterprise was headed by Simon de Colin, since Etienne's children were small, having married Etienne's widow. In the printed publications of Simon de Colin from 1522, J. Tory's frames of the frontispiece and pages, as well as initials, appeared with remarkable subtlety. Particularly remarkable are the initials with floral patterns - they were used in the 16th century. copied by many printers. Books designed by Tory bear the sign of the double cross of Lorraine.

In 1524, the publishing house of de Colin and Tory began publishing a series of Books of Hours. These elegant prayer books, designed with great taste, represent the highest achievement of the book art of that time.

In 1529, Tory published a unique book in which he examines the problems of type and writing, it is called “The Blooming Meadow.” Despite the allegorical and vague manner of presentation, this book, richly decorated with wood engravings, was a huge success. King Francis I awarded the author the title of royal printer in 1530. However, Tory did not rejoice at the honorary title for long: in 1533 he died.

In 1525, Simon de Colin handed over the printing house to Henri Etienne's son, Robert, and thanks to energetic efforts, he achieved the prosperity of the printing house in a short time. In this, a significant role was played by the excellent punch carver Claude Garamon - a great connoisseur, like his teacher Tory, of all varieties of antiquities. The elegant Romanesque typeface he developed on the basis of the Aldo serif quickly surpassed those used in Venice. Punchmakers throughout Europe readily used it for at least 150 years.

Garamon also developed a Greek typeface, called royal, because it was made in 1540 by order of King Francis I. The Parisian school of sign carvers had such prestige that in 1529 the king issued a decree by which he separated this craft from the printers' workshop. However, despite all his merits, Garamon died in 1561 in dire poverty. Thanks to the efforts of Garamon, the serif replaced the Gothic font in Western Europe and dominated for almost two centuries. Of course, this happened gradually and not so easily, since a type of Gothic type, the bastard, was used in France to produce luxuriously illustrated and highly readable chivalric novels. The Gothic font lasted the longest in Germany.

Another prominent puncher and printer, Robert Granjon, who provided Lyon printing houses with original typefaces, unsuccessfully tried to create a national French font based on Gothic italic with some elements of the italic version of Italica. But publishers in France abandoned this font.

Henri Etienne had three sons: Francois, Robert and Charles. All devoted themselves to the printed book and the art of printing, but the most fruitful was the activity of the middle one - Robert. He was 21 years old when he took over the family business, and, like his father, Robert was not an ordinary artisan typographer. He was distinguished by the breadth of his educational interests and was especially fond of classical philology. His main work was a large etymological dictionary of the Latin language, published in 1532, which was subsequently published in several more editions and improved each time. Robert Etienne considered his main task to be the publication of carefully verified and well-designed works of the classics of antiquity. He started with Apuleius and Cicero. For publications in Greek, he used the already mentioned royal script; in 1550, he printed a luxurious tome containing the New Testament. The Greek script of Garamon and Etienne aroused surprise and admiration in those days.

Robert Etienne published the Bible more than once in Latin, Ancient Greek and Hebrew. In addition, he dared to use the critical method and commentaries of Erasmus of Rotterdam and other humanists in restoring texts and clarifying obscure passages in the Bible. This angered theologians from the Sorbonne, who immediately accused the publisher of heresy. Fearing persecution, Etienne fled to Geneva in 1550, where many scientists from Catholic countries found shelter. There he founded a new printing house and worked in it until his death in 1559. In total, Robert published 600 books - much more than his father. He also introduced a new sign for the company - a philosopher under the tree of wisdom with falling dried branches - and the motto “Do not be philosophic, but be afraid.” Various versions of this sign were used by other printers and publishers. The fate of the remaining scions of the Etienne dynasty was not so glorious. Of the sons of Robert Etienne, the eldest, named after Henri's grandfather, was the most active. But after the death of his father, he inherited his enterprise in Geneva and began publishing Greek books, editing them himself. Some of these texts were discovered by him. In 1556 he published an anthology of Greek poetry “Greek Poets. The Most Important Heroic Songs,” which was highly praised as an example of scientific editing and excellent design.

In 1575, Henri Etienne the Younger published a huge etymological dictionary Greek language“Thesaurus linguae Graecae” has not lost its scientific value to this day. To prepare it took many years of work. Being a man of open minds, alien fanaticism and bigotry, Henri Etienne soon fell out of favor with the consistory of the local Calvinist church and was forced to return to France, where King Henry III, seeking reconciliation with the Huguenots, provided them with tolerable living conditions. There is almost nothing to tell about the further fate of the Etienne descendants. Not a single heir to this dynasty played a significant role in the history of the book.

One of the most prominent printers of that time was Christophe Plantin(1514-1589). He was born in France in the village of Saint-Aventine near Tours into a poor family; he studied printing and bookbinding in Caen, from where he moved to Paris to open an independent business. According to his religious beliefs, C. Plantin was close to the Huguenots, which forced him to leave for Antwerp in 1548. Perhaps the final impetus for this was the burning at the stake of the free-thinking typographer Etienne-Dole. In Antwerp, Plantin opened a printing house and shop in 1555, after his apprentice printed a Protestant prayer book without the master’s knowledge, and at that time religious intolerance reigned in Antwerp. Warned in time about the reprisals threatening him, Plantin considered it best to hide in Paris and spend more than a year and a half there. Returning to Antwerp, he learned that his workshop was destroyed and his property was sold under the hammer. Everything had to start all over again. Plantin set to work with ardor and in a few years surpassed all competitors. The success of his publications was ensured primarily by their exemplary design. Plantin ordered fonts from the best specialists in this field of that time - Garamon, Granjon, and later from Guillaume Le Baie. Plantin's prestige was unusually high. In 1570, King Philip II of Spain (Flanders at the time belonged to the Spanish crown) honored him with the title of chief royal printer with the right to supervise all printing houses in Flanders and the Netherlands. Thanks to Philip, who also had influence in the Roman Curia, Plantin received from the pope a monopoly on the printing of liturgical books in the domain of the Spanish monarch. For publications in Flemish, instead of the usual Gothic, he used a new civil font developed by Granjon. A book of type specimens published in 1557 shows how well Plantin's printing house was equipped with fonts and equipment.

Plantin's wide publishing program covered a wide variety of genres. From his first experiments, Plantin specialized in the production of illustrated books. In the first decade of his work he published many books, richly decorated with woodcuts. His publications are characterized by a luxurious frontispiece in the Renaissance style. The greatest merit of his publishing house is also the use of copper engravings and the spread of this method in Holland and other European countries. In Italy, copper engraving has been known since the 50s. XVI century In particular, in 1556, “Anatomy of the Human Body” by Juan de Valverde was published in Rome, abundantly supplied with copper engravings. But Plantin's engravings were better.

Plantin continuously expanded the scope of his activities. In 1567 he opened a business in Paris that within three years brought in thousands of florins. Another branch - in Salamanca (Spain) annually sold plantin editions for 5-15 thousand florins. In 1579, Plantin sent 67 titles to the Frankfurt Book Fair and sold 5,212 copies there. In terms of production and trade, it surpassed all well-known publishing companies, including the famous Etienne enterprise.

The French king invited him to Paris, the Duke of Savoy offered him the privilege of opening a printing house in Turin. However, Plantin made every effort to expand the Antwerp enterprise, trying to make it the largest publishing house in Europe. For this purpose, the entire Plantin family was mobilized. Eyewitnesses claim that even his 12-year-old daughter also read the rules of proofreading, often these were books in foreign languages. Already by 1570, Plantin achieved his goal, and his printing house became a model for all European enterprises of this type. It had 25 printing presses and 150 employees working without interruption. The owner paid the workers 2,200 crowns daily. The manufactory no longer fit in four buildings, and Plantin had to buy another house next door (by the way, it has survived to this day).

However, even as Plantin's enterprise was booming, it was destined to experience a new disaster. During the Dutch uprising against Spanish absolutism, Atwerp experienced a long siege and destruction. The printing house did not stop working during the siege, but in the end only one printing press remained operational. And again Plantin had to restore everything, which, thanks to his indefatigable energy and the help of friends, he eventually succeeded in doing.

Plantin himself considered the Multilingual Bible (Biblia Poliglotta) to be a source of pride and the pinnacle of his activity, where the text was written in parallel in four languages ​​- Latin, Ancient Greek, Hebrew and Aramaic, and the New Testament was also in Syriac. The book was carefully edited and richly illustrated with magnificent copper engravings that belonged to the chisel of the greatest masters of that time. It was published in separate volumes in 1568-1573, its total circulation was 1212 copies. Twelve of them, printed on parchment, were intended as a gift to the Spanish king, another ten copies on excellent Italian paper - to other patrons and patrons of Plantin. One set of the Bible on the best Italian paper cost Plantin 200 florins, on Lyon paper - 100 florins, on Trois paper - 70 florins. At that time, these were significant sums, and therefore the publication of the Multilingual Bible exhausted the publisher’s material resources. In order for the funds to implement this large-scale plan to be replenished more quickly, Plantin began to produce large quantities prayer books, also beautifully illustrated.

The difficulties with publishing the Bible were not only of a material nature: the king allowed the publication to be distributed before receiving permission from the pope, but the pope did not give such permission. The matter was settled only with the accession to the papal throne of a more lenient spiritual ruler. And yet, the clergy continued to treat this book with suspicion, and one learned theologian even declared it heretical; final permission to distribute the book was received only in 1580. All this red tape brought Plantin to the brink of bankruptcy, and until his death he could not extricate himself from financial difficulties.

Plantin's trademark is a hand lowered from the clouds, holding a compass, and the inscription “Constantia et labore” (“By constancy and labor”). This inscription in its own way characterizes the personality of the publisher, who was not an enlightenment scientist, but a typical entrepreneur of the era of manufacturing capitalism. Plantin published at least 981 books (this is the number of registered titles). Some believe that the actual number of its publications exceeds 1000.

After Plantin's death in 1589, his presses in Antwerp and Leiden left 14 printing presses, 103 sets of matrices, 48,647 pounds of type, 2,302 copper engravings and 7,493 wood engravings, besides a huge stock of initials carved on wood and copper.

Plantin's work was continued by members of his family; Plantin's son-in-law Balthazar Moret became the head of the enterprise; the publishing house produced mainly Catholic religious literature. The great Peter Paul Rubens provided this enterprise with copper engravings. It flourished for more than three centuries - until 1871, and in 1876 the city authorities of Antwerp bought it along with its inventory for 1 million 200 thousand francs to open one of the most interesting museums of books and printing in Europe - the Plantin Museum.

Plantin's account books mention the name of a bookbinder Lodewijk Elsevier from Louvain. Subsequently, this bookbinder, who studied typography from Plantin, became the founder of the venerable Elsevier publishing dynasty. Lodewijk Elsevier was born around 1546 in Louvain into the family of a printer. Fate led him to Antwerp, where he opened a bookbinding workshop. When Spanish troops under the command of the Duke of Alba captured Antwerp, many of the Protestant inhabitants were forced to flee. Lodewijk Elsevier also fled. However, when the situation in the northern Netherlands favored Protestantism, he moved to Leiden, an ancient city founded by the Romans. Gradually Leiden became an important center of trade. A university was founded here, which soon became one of the leading educational institutions in Europe. All this opened up wide opportunities for organizing a large book publishing enterprise; when Elsevier settled in Leiden, there were many publishers and booksellers there, so the competition was very serious. Not having the means to create a publishing house, Lodewijk Elsevier decided to first accumulate large capital in the book trade, and, being a man of scale, he took up wholesale brokerage rather than small trade. He was one of the first book auction organizers in Europe. In 1604, Elsevier began to buy books in entire libraries and sell them publicly by auction. Auctions of book collections have been a special specialty of the Elseviers firm for a century. Success in trading operations soon allowed Lodewijk to move on to publishing. At first he published one book a year, and by the end of his life, 10 books with his brand name appeared on the market annually. The proximity to enlightened circles was reflected in the fact that L. Elsevier published special literature for scientists and students. Most of its publications were written in the language of science - Latin, by the then most prominent professors of Leiden and some other universities.

In 1617, Elzevir died, leaving his sons a financially reliable and prestigious publishing and bookselling enterprise.

Lodewijk's eldest son Matthias (1565-1640) and the youngest Bonaventure (1583-1652) helped his father expand the Leiden enterprise, but it was not they, but Matthias's son Isaac (1596-1651) who gave it a special shine. Having married a bride with a large dowry, with the blessing of his grandfather, he bought a large printing house. When, after the death of their father, Matthias and Bonaventure inherited his enterprise, it turned out to be very convenient for them to print all the books in the printing house of Isaac Elzevir. This printing house became famous for the speed and impeccable quality of order fulfillment. In 1620, Isaac Elsevier received the title of university printer, but five years later, for reasons unknown to us, he sold his thriving printing house to his uncle Bonaventure and older brother Abraham (1592-1652). Bonaventura took over the sale of the printing house's products, and Abraham took over the printing business. This partnership continued for twenty-seven years. They published approximately 18 books annually. At the beginning of their careers, Bonaventure and Abraham were mainly engaged in the publication of scientific literature and the works of Roman classics. Then they began to publish books in French, Dutch, and on the history of Holland. It is difficult to determine in which area of ​​book production the Elseviers' contribution was most significant. These were publishers, printers, booksellers, and even second-hand book dealers. Constant and close contacts with the book market and readers brought them considerable benefit: they knew better than others the needs of the market and purchasing power clientele, felt the intellectual demand of the era.

And yet their main merit is the distribution of excellent and relatively cheap books. Elseviers can rightfully be considered “pioneers of the popularization of the book.” They tried to give the reader a well-edited book, but since neither they themselves nor most of their proofreaders and the editors were not scientists; there were publications that were sloppily edited. However, this did not harm the prestige of Elzevir - the scientists and writers of that time considered it an honor if the company undertook to publish their works; many authors were proud of their personal acquaintance with Elseviers. Publishers “discovered” such luminaries of science and literature as Rabelais, Calvin, Bacon, Descartes, Gassendi, Pascal, Milton, Racine, Corneille, Moliere. Elseviers published books in different formats; a series of literary classics was published in quarto format. They also took on folios, but mainly small-format books of a twelfth or twenty-fourth of a sheet, printed in a clear, filigree thin, but sometimes monotonous font and decorated with excellent copper engraving with a frontispiece, intricate vignettes and initials, are associated with the name of the Elzevirs. It was Elseviers who established the small format on the book market and thereby gave book publishing and bookselling a new powerful impetus, making books accessible to wide sections of the population.

In the XVI-XVII centuries. experiencing success cartography. In the first half of the 16th century. The centers of cartography were the cities of Italy - Venice, Genoa, Florence, Rome. From the middle of the 16th century. the center for the development of cartography moves from Italy to R.V., Flanders. Prominent cartographers include Gerard Mercator, Abraham Ortelius and Willem Janszoon Blaeu, and the Frenchman Nicolas Sanson. Mercator coined the term “atlas” - a collection of maps (1585). Mercator’s friend and competitor Aram Ortelius (1527-1598) published a map of the world in 1564, and then “The Theater of the Earth’s Circle,” where references were made for the first time to the geographers whose works he used. The first attempt at compiling a work on general geography was undertaken by the Dutchman B. Varenius in 1650. If Varenius paid primary attention to issues of physical geography, the Frenchman Davinius in the book “The World” (1660) for the first time gave economic information about European states.

Until the beginning of the 16th century. urban libraries did not have. They began to emerge thanks to the Reformation. These were city, school, university. There were good libraries in Jesuit schools, as well as in the Sorbonne, Oxford, and Cambridge in 1638-1639. John Harvard founded the first college in North America, and he had a scientific library. The library of Uppsala University was replenished in the 17th century. trophies from Germany (XXX war), so Ulfila’s Bible ended up here. The nobility also collected books. It was a prestigious hobby. For example, Philip II collected books, but did not allow anyone to access the treasures of Escorial. To which the Archbishop of Tarragona wrote to his correspondent: “So much has been collected there good books, and making them inaccessible means doing more harm than good.” (“book cemetery”) Monarchs of the 16th-17th centuries, following the spirit of the times, opened the doors of museums and book collections to scientists. In Germany, the library in Heidelberg (“princely”) was popular - “the mother of all libraries in Germany.” In 1622, during the XXX War, troops of the Catholic League under the command of Tilly took Heidelberg by storm, the entire library fell into the hands of Maximilian of Bavaria, who decided to donate it to the pope. The richest libraries were those of the French king and the Mazarin library. The Royal Library was founded in 1518 by Francis I. In the 17th century. it contained about 16,000 handwritten and 1,000 printed books at the beginning of the 18th century. - 70,000 printed and 15,000 manuscripts. Then in Paris it was decided to create a public library, the idea belonged to Richelieu, and was embodied by Mazarin. Librarian (fanatic of his work) Gabriel Naudet (1600-1653). In January 1652, the library was confiscated from Mazarin, Naudet was in deep depression, and Queen Christina invited him to Sweden to be with her library. After Mazarin came to power again in 1653, Naudet returned to France, but died as soon as he set foot on French soil. Dad's library was good. In 1690, it was replenished by the receipt of the book treasure of Christina, who moved to Rome. In the XVI-XVII centuries. deceiving the vigilant censorship has become a kind of art. They used anonymous publications, fictitious addresses, pseudonyms, and changed the year of publication. Thus, “Letters of Dark People”, published in Germany, were provided with references to Ald. In 1616, Theodore Agrippa d'Aubigné anonymously printed "Tragic Poems" in his own printing house and, under an empty cartouche, instead of a publisher's mark, indicated the place of publication of "In the Desert".

Sphere of everyday existence has always attracted the attention of scientists. Until recently, attention was paid mainly to the living conditions and way of life of the higher social strata, modern science strives to reconstruct the mass structures of everyday life. Although even now the life of the city is better known than the villages, the lifestyle of the rich is better than that of the lower classes, some regions are more fully studied than others. But in the XVI-XVII centuries. V Everyday life has a lot in common with the Middle Ages proper. Nutrition is determined by the natural seasonal rhythm and depends on the climate. XVI-XVII centuries - a time of sharp improvement in the quality of life, but the needs of people and the nature of their consumption were largely determined climatic conditions. Life was easier and cheaper in areas with a mild climate (the Mediterranean) than north of the Alps, not to mention the northern and eastern regions of Europe. Life was more difficult in the mountainous regions than in the valleys and plains. The principle of self-sufficiency continued to prevail. The influence of the market was more pronounced where luxury goods, overseas rarities, provision of raw materials for export crafts, etc. were involved. It was more noticeable in Western and Central Europe, where the centers of economic and political life of the European world moved. In crafts related to the production of food and basic necessities, small traditional forms of organization were especially stable. The shops of bakers and butchers were small, but specialized (baking white, black, gray bread, confectioners, cake makers). Where there was demand, large-scale food and beverage production arose (for example, Lisbon, where there were bakeries that made sea biscuits). At this time, the vast majority of the population consumed or spent more than half of what it produced or earned on food. Thus, E. Cholier, who studied the standard of living in Antwerp in the 15th-16th centuries (the highest in Europe at that time), provides data on the distribution of expenses for a mason’s family of 5 people: for food - 78.5% (of which - for “ bread" - 49.4%)); for renting housing, lighting, fuel - 11.4%; clothes and other - 10.1%.

The most important food product for the general population were grains - rye, barley, millet, oats, wheat (Mediterranean), in the 16th century. - rice, maize, buckwheat (in Northern Europe). They prepared soups, porridges, and bread. Next came the legumes. There were “seasonal additions” - vegetables and herbs: spinach, lettuce, parsley, garlic, pumpkin, carrots, turnips, cabbage, nuts, berries, fruits.

A complement to plant foods was fish and seafood (especially in coastal and coastal areas). The fish were bred in a special ponds, kept in cages. Trade in sea fish (herring, cod, sardines, etc.) live, salted, smoked, dried, has acquired the nature of entrepreneurial activity. Fish was eaten during fasting days (166 (or more, according to other sources) days a year). The Church forbade eating meat and animal fats for more than 150 “fast” days a year.

On these same days, trade in meat, butter, and eggs was prohibited, with exceptions made for the sick and Jews. The ban was violated. Meat is an important component of nutrition in many regions and countries of early modern Europe. Pork, beef, but sheep and goats were also bred for meat, and lamb was appreciated in England. Game and poultry were consumed more in cities than in the countryside.

The daily diet included intoxicating drinks: beer, wine, “honey”, kvass (in Eastern Europe). From the 16th century Beer began to be consumed more than honey. Beer was produced in households, but there were also professional brewers. Some regions turned into areas where beer was produced for export (Central Europe, R.V., England). Moreover, each region specialized in a special type of beer. From the 16th century commercial production of strong alcoholic beverages - “hot wine” - began. Its centers were Southern France (Bordeaux, Cognac), Andalusia, Catalonia. In R.V., Northern Germany, schnapps was made by distilling grain. In Germany, aquavita was produced in Schleswig-Holstein, Westphalia, in Denmark - in Aalborg. New varieties of grape wines have appeared - Alsace, Neckar, Mainz, Moselwein, Rheinwein, Osterwein, Tokay. In the 17th century - champagne. Their drinks were in the areas of fruit gardening - from apples - Apfelmost - in Swabia; cider - in Brittany, Normandy, Galicia; from pears - Birnenmost (Bavaria), from cherries - in Hildesheim, etc. Wine and intoxicating drinks still perform various functions in everyday life: simply drunk, components of culinary recipes, medicines. As a means of communication - at feasts and official ceremonies. Wine consumption was high: in Provence - in the 15th century. - from 1 to 2 liters per person per day; in the army of Charles VII - 2 years, in Narbonne - at the beginning of the 16th century. - 1.7 l. Contemporaries believed that the 16th century. in Germany - “a century of drunkenness.” In the 17th century Europe begins to drink chocolate, coffee and tea.

In the XVI-XVII centuries. Sugar consumption has increased. Sugar cane plantations and processing plants are expanding. Along with the traditional centers of sugar production - Genoa, Venice, Barcelona, ​​Valencia - sugar factories appeared in Lisbon, Seville, and Antwerp after 1500.

The nutritional structure still varied by region and social class. Johann Bemus (beginning of the 16th century) wrote in his “Eating Customs in Germany” that “the nobility have expensive food, the burghers live moderately. Workers eat 4 times a day, idle people - 2. Peasant food - bread, oatmeal, boiled beans, drink - water or whey. They bake in Saxony White bread, drink beer, their food is heavy. Westphalians eat black bread and drink beer. Wine is consumed only by the rich, as it is brought from the Rhine and is very expensive.”

Culinary literature, which had a strong Slavic and Italian influence, began to be in demand. In 1530, a cookbook by the Italian humanist Platina (15th century) was published in Augsburg. There are also manuals for housewives, which talk about how to store strategic family reserves. Calorie content of the daily diet: in the XIV-XV centuries. - from 2500 to 6000-7000 calories for the rich. In general, researchers note that for the general public, the population of Central and Western Europe is declining compared to the end of the 15th century. - consumption of meat and a diet of the type - porridge-mess (mousse-bray) is established. Nutritional imbalance is especially noticeable during famine years.

Such frequent periods of famine led to the fact that the people had a dream of a country where there is no place for hunger and problems (the most important thing is that there is no need to work). The people's utopia has many names, it appears under different images. The English have the country of Cockayne, the French have Cocaigne, the Italians have Kukanya, the Germans have Schlarafenland, as well as the Country of Youth, Luberland, the Poor Man's Paradise, Candy Mountain. Bruegel depicted it with characteristic features - roofs made of pies; a roast pig running away with a knife in its side; mountain of dumplings; people lounging in comfortable positions, waiting for tasty morsels to fall into their mouths. The gingerbread house that Hans and Gretchen found in the forest also belongs to utopia. This is the Abbey of Tellem Rabelais, with the motto: “Do what you want.” The country of Cockayne is in the west: “In the sea to the west of the country of Spain, / There is an island that the people call Cockayne,” according to Celtic mythology, heaven is in the west, but the Christian church has always taught that heaven is in the east. A. Morton suggests that the dream of Cockayne led to the search for a way to America.

Costume. In 1614, a pamphlet appeared in France, which condemned the luxury of the nobility, written by a prominent Huguenot. There have always been prohibitions on bourgeois wearing what the nobility wear. Clothing was strictly social in nature. Royal orders on this matter were known from the end of the 15th-16th-17th centuries, then they faded away. There were prohibitions on wearing precious stones on clothes, on fingers, various jewelry, and also prescribed what should be worn and what should not be worn. This existed until the revolution. It was assumed that there were no restrictions on clothing for kings and (almost) courtiers. They were allowed to wear clothes made of silk, linen, and wool. Usually kings wore woolen drape with a pattern, taffeta, velor, camelot, more often these were fabrics brought from England, China, Holland, and India. But the need for good fabrics led to the promotion of domestic textile production. Color regulation was maintained - for the upper classes - black, red, blue, purple, pink grey, blue, drape and scarlet - bright red. In the 15th century comes into use White color, at first rarely, then increasingly used in clothing, but these fabrics and draperies were forbidden to the bourgeoisie. The bans were not enforced. Although wearing ties, embroidery, and jewelry was considered a privilege of the nobility.

It was fashionable to wear fur. Ermine fur is a sign of royal power. Social status was recognized by the width of the fur. The furs of squirrel, marten, beaver, muskrat, fox, sheepskin, and red squirrel could be worn by the bourgeoisie.

Precious and semi-precious stones - diamond, ruby, carnelian, coral, sapphire, emerald, agate - are the privilege of the nobility. Stones were also worn because they were given a magical meaning. At first, buttons served a purely decorative function; it was fashionable to sew on bells. Cuffs, scarves, gloves, and collars were made from lace. They still wore several dresses at the same time. In addition to dresses, the nobles wore a cloak, a coat made of silk, wool, decorated with embroidery, and draped. For a simple nobleman, a short cloak was required; a sign of special dignity was a long cloak, dragging along the floor.

Headdress - military - helmet - for the king, either made of gold or gilded, princes of the blood, dukes - silver, commoners - iron; in normal times - they wore a mortier - a small short cap worn by the king, his retinue, princes of the blood, the chancellor, peers, the president of parliament, his mortier was with two rows of galloons; the king's mortier was trimmed with ermine. By the beginning of the 18th century. goes out of fashion, was worn only on special occasions, during the exit of the king, queen, mortier they put it on their weapons. A cap - a bonnet - of small volume was worn by barons, decorated with pearls; in addition, they wore a baret and a tok. The nobles wore hats trimmed with braid, precious stones, and ostrich feathers. The custom of removing the headdress appears at the end of the 17th century. in all cases indoors, an exception was made for the king. 12 dukes on stools had the right to sit in the presence of the king, the rest stood. (right of the stool).

Shoes. The nobles wore shoes and boots in the 15th-16th centuries. they wore shoes with long toes, and the regulations determined the length of the shoe toes - for nobles 24-25 inches, 14 inches was allotted to townspeople. There were differences between secular and military boots; secular boots had bells, ribbons, and lace; shoes were tied with bows at the knees. There were several pairs of socks, the fashionistas had woolen and silk ones.

An indispensable accessory to the costume were gloves - leather with decorations, lace, patterns, and soaked in perfume. Maria de Medici bought expensive gloves that cost several villages. For now, Italian and oriental perfumes were used; French ones appeared at the end of the 16th century. A man from high society - associated with gloves.

Collars of the 16th century. - flat cutters. The skirts were fluffy, made on a frame, and reached several meters in diameter. You had to know how to wear them; the skirt was accompanied by a long train - a manteau de cour. But not every noblewoman could afford a long train. In 1710 it was said that the queen had a train 11 cubits long, for her daughter - 9, granddaughter - 7, princess - 5, duchess - 3. The high cap - ennen was replaced in the 16th century. small, in the XVI-XVII centuries. walked with their heads open, but with complex hairstyles. Shoes were made of velvet and brocade, clothing was complemented by a muff and fan, and a small mirror.

Rapid change of fashion in the 16th-17th centuries. was explained by the fact that the ruling class sought to close itself in its own circle, since the bourgeoisie tried to penetrate the higher nobility by purchasing estates and annoblization.

From the end of the 16th century. with the advent of mercantilism, the state prohibited spending on a suit, the church also advocated this. The pope himself issues a series of bulls threatening fashionistas with excommunication. They were echoed by royal instructions. Thus, ordinances against luxury were issued in 1613, 1624, 1634, 1636, 1639, 1644, 1656, 1660, 1679. It was forbidden for all subjects to wear imported things, except public women and swindlers who did not comply with the order were fined, and sometimes their clothes were confiscated.

The Huguenot costume was strict, dark in color, without decoration. Sully's costume was made of magnificent drape, velor, and velvet. From the end of the 17th century. fashion was dictated by the king's court. With the strengthening of the bourgeoisie, the nobles' adherence to fashion begins to be ridiculed. Fashionable clothes = idleness. “The nobleman carries all his income on his shoulders.”

The highest clergy used the most expensive fabrics for their robes. The cardinals and bishops had the most luxurious vestments; their clothes were decorated with embroidery, precious stones, and furs. Cardinals wore a red robe, bishops wore white or lilac, and their hair was cut short. Each order had its own costume, members of the monastic orders were recognizable by their hooded robe, sandals on thick clothes and varied in color - Franciscans - brown, Dominicans - white, Jesuits, Capuchins could wear secular dress. Since 1549, a royal order ordered the clergy to dress modestly, not to wear an arquebus, not to go where they were not supposed to, etc. in taverns, etc.

From the middle of the 15th century. The bourgeois class is formed, its costume differs from that of the nobility until the bourgeoisie recognizes itself as a class. The nobility of the robe, the bourgeoisie, who acquired the fief, wore robes (robens). In 1614, the Estates General prohibited bourgeois from wearing noble clothes under a fine of 1000 ecus. From the end of the 17th century. bourgeois who wore noble robes were ridiculed. See Moliere's plays. Bourgeois dress - made of inexpensive fabrics, linen, dark colors. Bourgeois women wore dresses made of grisette fabric (gray color) (grisette = poor bourgeoisie), no decorations except lace - gez. On the head there was a chaperon - a cap or mantilla; the neck was covered with scarves. Full skirts, (several), the top one is the most expensive, to keep it, it was pinned up and everyone else was visible. Shoes - leather shoes.

The peasant costume is functional. To make it convenient to work. The fabrics that were used for the costume were canvas, homespun linen; artisans used drape for sewing clothes. Colors - dim, gray, blue. Festive clothes were made of velor and silk. The wedding dress was extremely good, it was made from expensive fabric and was passed down from generation to generation. The woman's chest was described, her wedding suit was included in the inventory. The wedding cap - chapo de roses - was given by the father, and it was obligatory. In some provinces, girls did not receive land, but received chapeau de roses. Men wore short pants and a linen shirt, women wore short dresses. The headdress for men is a felt hat, for ladies - a cap. Rabbit, sheep, and dog fur were used for winter clothing. Shoes - bare feet, clogs, rope shoes, rough leather shoes. (See Lehnen brothers). Callot's engravings give an idea of ​​the clothing of the urban poor.

There were livery suits - the people of the king, duke, prince, baron were dressed in the same suits, often from the lord's shoulder. On the occasion of church holidays The clientele is usually given cloth or dresses. Members of the royal and city council, pages, and government officials also wore the same suit. The king and his relatives had a suit made of silk or velor in black or red. The courtiers wore a gray suit. An official suit appears - for everyday wear - black, for holidays - red. Judges, lawyers, doctors, and scientists dressed all in black. The king's advisers wear black lower clothing and red upper clothing. The President of the Royal Council wore a black jacket and a long black cloak. Members of the city municipality dressed in city colors. For France - red-white, blue. The Parisian echevins wore black robes, scarlet robes, and white collars. The Dijon municipality preferred clothes with a predominant color of lilac - the color of Burgundy.

The rector of the University of Paris wore a blue cape trimmed with ermine. Deans - red, with expensive fur, masters - black capes. Doctors of theology wore a cap - baret (bonnet). Students wore a black jacket and purple pants, but could dress differently. Students of senior faculties wore a bonet kare - a 4-corner cap.

Color continued to be of enormous importance. The preferred layers are red, as well as black combined with red. The colors of dishonor are green and yellow. A green headdress distinguished the debtor. The color yellow meant belonging to the Jews, who were required to wear circles on their sleeves from the age of 12, and for women - on their heads from yellow color- corral. Only Jewish doctors were not required to wear these signs. Courtesans wore black gloves and a white ribbon or circle of another fabric on the sleeve. They had no right to wear a dress with a collar, a veil or fur. But, of course, all this is in theory...

Since the 17th century Fashion itself has been appearing since 1672, when the first fashion magazine was published. Moreover, to be dressed like a king means to express one’s loyalty.

From the middle of the XV-XVI centuries. there is an increase beggary, vagrancy. There was a hierarchy among the poor and beggars - the privileged, the domestic poor, the inhabitants of shelters, hospitals, and conventions. Then came those who had the privileges of collecting alms - pilgrims, monks of mendicant orders, guild apprentices, schoolchildren, students, vagabonds were Landsknechts returning from service, from Turkish captivity. The most united organization were the blind, who had their own “king”. Alms were collected on the streets, near the temple, in the temple itself, and “at the doors.” The process of pauperization, the growth of beggary, and vagrancy led to the fact that the authorities viewed vagrants as a dangerous element that needed to be fought: control over the poor, limiting the influx of newcomers, and a system of charity.

Holidays. Religious. Winter cycle. Pre-Christmas - November 11th - St. Martina (Martin's goose), December 25. - Christmas - Christmastide, processions, mysteries, games; 2.

Discuss

In almost all countries of Europe, central and western, these large countries in the 16th and 17th centuries at different rates, in different ways, with their own characteristics, but were gradually drawn into the process of maturation and formation of a market economy and market relations. Market economy - based on the principles of private property and market relations, private-capitalist, when not just property, but capital, i.e. property that operates makes a profit.

Market relations matured in the depths of the old economy, gradually destroying the old economy, displacing and replacing it.

Accordingly, bourgeois relations based on market principles were formed in public life.

The pace and paths were different. But despite this, almost all European countries experienced this process. And the 16-17th century was characterized by the process of initial accumulation of capital. This process of primitive accumulation occurred in each of these countries. In some it is very noticeable, in others not so much. It was noticeable where trade routes shifted, and these countries found themselves at the forefront of trade and economic development.

What is the process of initial capital accumulation? It is necessary to highlight the socio-economic and historical aspects. As a socio-economic phenomenon, the process of initial capital accumulation is the formation of start-up capital, primarily monetary capital, which then turns into physical capital, which is the basis of a new enterprise. Be it commercial, industrial, craft, etc.

And physical capital is those materialized funds that begin to produce certain products, some services and operations and generate corresponding income. Those. These are not just funds, but funds that work for the market, and bring the owner of this capital appropriate income and dividends.

Accordingly, carriers of this capital, owners capable of using it in an expanding, developing market economy, appear. Those. the pre-bourgeoisie and bourgeoisie formally appear.

From a historical point of view, the process of primitive accumulation is a complex process, the destruction of the old socio-economic structure, the old economy, which has two tendencies. One of them is the destruction of the old economy, the separation of the means of production from small producers, cities and villages. Small producer - farmer, peasant, artisan, tavern owner. He loses these means of production and is forced to enter the labor market as a seller of his labor power or working head.

A layer of hired workers, the pre-proletariat and the proletariat, is formed.

At the same time, the owners of capital, money and material resources, a category of entrepreneurs with an appropriate social psychology and orientation, use this capital for its intended purpose in a market economy, for their own enrichment and development of the economy, and to satisfy all kinds of requests. And also in the process of primitive accumulation it uses various methods and ways to obtain initial capital. IN different countries these are different paths.

Since the end of the 15th century, 16th, 17th and even the 18th century - one of the most important ways to obtain initial capital is colonial expansion, the use of resources of the colonies, unequal exchange with the aborigines, be they Indians, Indians, the black population of Africa, etc., direct capture material assets, precious metals, slave trade.

All European countries: Spain, Portugal, Italy, France, Holland followed this path. Russia, to some extent, also behaved this way, mastering Far East, Siberia, imposing a fur tax on the local population.

Second method of accumulation Money, initial capital – financial banking system, the practice of government loans and usury. Usury was everywhere, in all countries. State practice loans and the banking system are France and Italy, where these banks appeared.

The third way of accumulating initial capital also existed in all countries, but was especially developed in France - this was the tax system. France had the largest population, so there was someone to collect taxes from. And the ransom system.

The fourth way is the policy of state protectionism, protection, patronage of one’s trade and industrial enterprises and the creation of monopolies protected by the king, baron, and ruler. France and even England stood out most before the great English Revolution of 1640.

The fifth way is the use of feudal privileges, including land ownership, as the basis for the formation of start-up capital. Enclosure processes in England.

The sixth way, which provided significant income, was Qatar, piracy, and war booty. Virtually all countries engaged in piracy. England and Holland abused this the most. France too. To some extent, even the English colonies in America.

This is how start-up capital was created. In virtually every country extreme forms of exploitation were used. 18 hour work day, from dawn to dusk. A good stick or whip as a form of encouragement. Operation in almost all countries.

The process of primitive accumulation of capital was based on various concepts of European thought as the ideological basis or theoretical prerequisites. These concepts informed the process. If we remember Protestantism and various doctrines, then within these Protestant teachings we can find a somewhat veiled, but quite clear justification for this: economy, frugality, everything should go into use, everything should bring some benefit.

There was a counter-reformation of ideas, a renewal of Catholicism in the fight against the Reformation. The Council of Trent considered this issue. Inside catholic church A tendency developed when one boss concentrated in his hands not one, but several positions that brought him a certain income. The Council of Trent ruled that this practice was contrary to the ideals of religion.

The most important thing is the emergence of the idea or doctrine of mercantilism. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, the doctrine of mercantilism as a major direction of economic thought was formed in Europe and underlay the development of the European market economy in the most advanced countries, and then in all countries.

There are 3 stages of development of the doctrine of mercantilism. The essence of the doctrine - this subject analyzes the sphere of market circulation in order to justify the most effective means increasing national or personal wealth.

On early stage, 16th century, monetarist stage of mercantilism - Jean Moden 1568 he substantiated the French version of early monetarist mercantilism. In England, William Strafford performed a similar function. The essence of the concept is that gold is considered the absolute form of wealth. We must strive to get as much gold as possible. Accumulate cash reserves within the country. Which way? Administrative regulation is to make such decisions and laws so that the money goes to the royal treasury and does not go anywhere. Those. regulation of monetary circulation, a ban on the export of specie outside the country or a sharp restriction of such export. And in order not to spend too much, you need to stand on your own soil, make do with your own goods and services, import less (import someone else’s) and more export (export your own).

17th century - a more developed stage of mercantilism begins - protectionist. Jean Baptiste Colbert under Louis 14 did a lot to develop the French economy, its military power, and strengthen the regime of absolutism. Gold acts as the absolute form of wealth. The strategic goal is to ensure a growing and stable flow of money into the country. To do this, you need to develop your own manufactories, crafts, and trading enterprises, boost your own economy, stimulate foreign trade, with an emphasis on the export (export) of your goods. And there are fewer imports.

At this stage of protectionist mercantilism, monetary liberalization begins. Because if everything is too regulated, then money circulates slowly and it is difficult to make a profit. And when they begin to spin unhindered, then the turnover turns out to be more than can be accumulated by prohibitions and restrictions.

The late stage of mercantilism is analytical. All previous theories and scientific concepts are systematized. All these concepts apply to the era of manufacturing capitalism. The idea of ​​circulation as the main source of wealth becomes central. Those. a powerful working market machine: bought - sold, bought - sold. The greater the turnover, the more money flows to both the owner of the capital and contributions to the treasury. And the state gets richer.

Naturally, the emergence of a new economy, new socio-economic doctrines in one way or another affects the development of the sphere of law and public life. The 16th and 17th centuries were a special period for European countries. Not everyone agrees with this that European civilization in the 16th and 17th centuries was the heyday of the absolutist form of government. Those. The class monarchy inherited from the late Middle Ages is gradually transformed into an absolute monarchy.

You should know what a class monarchy is. You are all feudal lords, and I am the king. I am the first among you, I rule in your name. And an absolute monarchy - you are my subjects, and I am your boss. I do what I want. Under a class monarchy, the king-monarch relies only on his own resources, his domain. And the main power of the state is the line of vassalage, both economic and military. I depend on your support.

Under an absolute monarchy the situation changes. An absolute monarchy is a political regime with legally unlimited power. The state is me. This is a legally unlimited form of government by one monarch. Absolutism as a historical phenomenon is a special socio-political system that takes shape during the transition from the Middle Ages to the modern era, i.e. from traditional to industrial society.

This special socio-political system of the transition period reflects the temporary balance of socio-political forces. The absolute ruler is, as it were, a counterweight between various categories of society, between the ordinary nobility and the titled nobility, between the nobility and the church. In some states the church is very strong.

Relying on a growing urban population, a new economy, and a serving nobility, the absolute monarchy gradually subjugates all categories and strata of society.

An absolute monarchy is characterized by the following: the creation of national power. A national bureaucratic apparatus, a bureaucratic machine, is being created.

A permanent army subordinate to the monarch is formed. He no longer depends on the military support of his vassals. A national tax system is being formed. Those. The national tax system applies to all layers and territories. The monarch is no longer financially dependent on the support of his subjects.

Economic development and state interests require the unification of legislation, administrative structure and the system of weights and measures. For example, in France the unit of weight is the livre. The Parisian livre is 490 grams, and the livre in Marseille is different.

Creation of a national judicial system and gradual displacement of local judicial systems. The formation of a state church is also a powerful support of absolute power. An absolute monarchy is distinguished by the implementation of a unified national economic policy.

The solution to all these problems allows the sovereign to break the willfulness of the large feudal lords and turn this nobility into a court nobility, which depends on the favor of the monarch. And the once free feudal lords are gradually degenerating into “moseks” who run around the court and see if they are granted something. And they argue about who from their midst will slip the king another favorite, their wives, daughters, just to gain influence on the king and share in the fat pie.

Absolutism had justification in both the legal and political spheres. And many thinkers, in one way or another, advocated the introduction of an absolute form of control.

In England, James 1 Stuart became not only a king, but also a theorist of absolutism at the beginning of the 17th century.

And also the thinker Thomas Hobbes.

In France, Jean Moden. And in Russia - Feofan Prokopovich and Simeon of Polotsk.

Each country in Europe had its own characteristics in the development of absolutism. Different shapes absolutist regimes were born.

In particular, there is a concept despotic absolutism. The most striking manifestation is Louis 14, the Sun King, 2nd half of the 17th and early 18th centuries. This is not an oriental despot, of course. He could not order the population of Paris to be buried alive, or half the country to be killed. This is a personalized state system. The state is me. This system is focused on pursuing policies either in the interests of the monarch himself, or in the interests of the court guard, or in the interests of the dynasty.

In France, despotic absolutism lasted until the mid-18th century. Then it was replaced briefly by enlightened absolutism. And at the end of the 18th century it evolved in a conservative direction, and it can be called conservative absolutism. This is a state system of government that is focused on pursuing a protective policy, maintaining the status quo of the regime, preserving social, political, ideological postulates in the interests of some feudal clans, groups, etc., based on the ideals of traditional mentality, i.e. Tsar-Father, this is a creation of the will of the Lord, his vicegerent on earth. And the use of ritual forms of behavior at court that have developed over centuries, ceremonies when the king undresses, dresses publicly, publicly conceives an heir, so that there is no doubt that this is the heir. This is the use of ritual stereotypes to strengthen the regime. There is no talk of any breakthrough or progress here.

This is France, shortly before enlightened absolutism failed and there was a shift towards conservatism, leading to the great French Revolution.

Theological absolutism. Chapter secular power at the same time he is the head of spiritual power. England - the monarch is simultaneously the head of secular power and the Anglican Church.

Focal or regional absolutism. This is Italy. On the territory of the Holy Roman Empire there are a lot of such states, possessions, and city-states. This is a form of government or a state system that is formed in a situation of state decentralization, which is projected onto the local political, legal, religious, social and other features of these small territories. Like a vinaigrette: here is a strong monarch, there is a military man, etc. It seems that the country of Germany is a large country, and there are many possessions, so by moving through several principalities during the day, you can discover several forms of government.

Enlightened absolutism. This is a regime or form of government or state system that is oriented towards national consolidation. There is some discord in society. Thanks to the development of a market economy, merchants appear - they want one thing, the intelligentsia appears - they want something else. It is necessary to pursue a policy aimed at consolidating the people and flexible assimilation of new social groups, such as merchants, owners of factories, scientists, who need to be somehow attached to the system so that they are not critics, but an additional wheel, including before the implementation of active foreign aggressive policy or protectionist policy in the interests of the development of capital, own manufactures, protection of trade. And also through supporting educational ideology, which Catherine the Great did very well. Scientists for some period act as allies rather than opponents of the regime.

Each country could have its own form of absolutism.

National features of absolutism:

France:

The high role of the state bureaucracy

Active protectionist policies

Active external expansion, building a colonial empire, expanding the borders of the kingdom, ensuring secure borders

As the religious-civil conflict smooths out, a departure from confession-oriented policies

England:

Lack of a standing army in comparison with Spain, France, Austria. We can say that England is a non-militarized country.

Lack of an extensive structure of state bureaucracy and officials

A lot of self-government

Preservation of the significant political role of the representative body of power - Parliament. The oldest representative body originating in Europe. Preservation of the significant political role of representative government.

England is characterized by an active confessional policy. The Anglican Church, the fight against Catholicism. In the 17th century, a clash with Puritan movements led to the great English Revolution.

Before the English Revolution, England pursued a passive protectionist policy, but since the revolution of 1651 there has been a transition to an active protectionist policy.

Germany:

Absolutism is characterized by dependence on religious factors in politics

Focus on maintaining regional autonomy. Germany was fragmented until the mid-19th century. These lands were alienated from each other

Significant differentiation of regional absolutist regimes. Here are 2 German states. One is with a despotic regime, the second is conservative, the third is enlightened absolutism. And all within one area.

Spain:

Rigid centralized power

Active confessional protective policy (remember the Inquisition, the Catholic Church)

The high political role of the nobility, especially the grandees and idle hidalgos

Active foreign policy, the creation of the largest colonial empire in 50-60 years

Wars against Turkey, in other European countries. The regime did not have enough intelligence or strength to develop the domestic economy



The power of the Ottoman Empire reached its apogee in the mid-16th century. The period of the reign of Suleiman I the Magnificent (1520–1566) is considered the Golden Age of the Ottoman Empire. Suleiman I surrounded himself with many capable dignitaries. Most of them were recruited through the devşirme system or captured during army campaigns and pirate raids, and by 1566, when Suleiman I died, these “new Turks” or “new Ottomans” already firmly held power over the entire empire. They formed the backbone of the administrative authorities, while the highest Muslim institutions were headed by indigenous Turks. Theologians and jurists were recruited from among them, whose duties included interpreting laws and performing judicial functions.

In 1521, the Ottoman army crossed the Danube and captured Belgrade. This victory, which Mehmed II could not achieve at one time, opened the way for the Ottomans to the plains of Hungary and the upper Danube basin. In 1526 Suleiman took Budapest and occupied all of Hungary. In 1529 the Sultan began the siege of Vienna, but was unable to capture the city before the onset of winter. Nevertheless, the vast territory from Istanbul to Vienna and from the Black Sea to the Adriatic Sea formed the European part of the Ottoman Empire, and Suleiman during his reign carried out seven military campaigns on the western borders of the power.

Suleiman also fought in the east. The borders of his empire with Persia were not defined, and vassal rulers in the border areas changed their masters depending on whose side was powerful and with whom it was more profitable to enter into an alliance. In 1534, Suleiman took Tabriz and then Baghdad, incorporating Iraq into the Ottoman Empire; in 1548 he regained Tabriz. The Sultan spent the entire year 1549 in pursuit of the Persian Shah Tahmasp I, trying to fight him. While Suleiman was in Europe in 1553, Persian troops invaded Asia Minor and captured Erzurum. Having expelled the Persians and dedicated most After the conquest of the lands east of the Euphrates in 1554, Suleiman, according to an official peace treaty concluded with the Shah, received a port in the Persian Gulf at his disposal. Squadrons of the naval forces of the Ottoman Empire operated in the waters of the Arabian Peninsula, in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Suez.

From the very beginning of his reign, Suleiman paid great attention to strengthening the naval power of the state in order to maintain Ottoman superiority in the Mediterranean. In 1522 his second campaign was directed against Fr. Rhodes, located 19 km from the southwestern coast of Asia Minor. After the capture of the island and the eviction of the Johannites who owned it to Malta, the Aegean Sea and the entire coast of Asia Minor became Ottoman possessions. Soon, the French king Francis I turned to the Sultan for military assistance in the Mediterranean and with a request to move against Hungary in order to stop the advance of the troops of Emperor Charles V, who were advancing on Francis in Italy. The most famous of Suleiman's naval commanders, Hayraddin Barbarossa, the supreme ruler of Algeria and North Africa, devastated the coasts of Spain and Italy. Nevertheless, Suleiman's admirals were unable to capture Malta in 1565.

Suleiman died in 1566 in Szigetvár during a campaign in Hungary. Body of the last of the greats Ottoman sultans was transferred to Istanbul and buried in a mausoleum in the courtyard of the mosque.

Under the new Sultan Selim II, the Ottomans began to lose their position at sea. In 1571, the united Christian fleet met the Turkish in the battle of Lepanto and defeated it. During the winter of 1571–1572, the shipyards in Gelibolu and Istanbul worked tirelessly, and by the spring of 1572, thanks to the construction of new warships, the European naval victory was nullified. In 1573 they managed to defeat the Venetians, and the island of Cyprus was annexed to the empire. Despite this, the defeat at Lepanto foreshadowed the coming decline of Ottoman power in the Mediterranean.

Decline of the Empire.

After Selim II, most of the sultans of the Ottoman Empire were weak rulers. Murad III, son of Selim, reigned from 1574 to 1595. His tenure on the throne was accompanied by unrest.

After the death of Murad III, 20 of his sons remained. Of these, Mehmed III ascended the throne, strangling 19 of his brothers. His son Ahmed I, who succeeded him in 1603, tried to reform the system of power and get rid of corruption. He moved away from the cruel tradition and did not kill his brother Mustafa. And although this, of course, was a manifestation of humanism, from that time all the brothers of the sultans and their closest relatives from the Ottoman dynasty began to be kept in captivity in a special part of the palace, where they spent their lives until the death of the reigning monarch. Then the eldest of them was proclaimed his successor. Thus, after Ahmed I, few who reigned in the 17th and 18th centuries. Sultans had a sufficient level of intellectual development or political experience to rule such a huge empire. As a result, the unity of the state and the central power itself began to quickly weaken.

Mustafa I, brother of Ahmed I, was mentally ill and reigned for only one year. Osman II, the son of Ahmed I, was proclaimed the new sultan in 1618. Being an enlightened monarch, Osman II tried to transform state structures, but was killed by his opponents in 1622. For some time, the throne again went to Mustafa I, but already in 1623 Osman’s brother Murad ascended the throne IV, who led the country until 1640. His reign was dynamic and reminiscent of Selim I. Having come of age in 1623, Murad spent the next eight years tirelessly trying to restore and reform the Ottoman Empire. In an effort to improve the health of government structures, he executed 10 thousand officials. Murad personally stood at the head of his armies during the eastern campaigns, prohibited the consumption of coffee, tobacco and alcoholic beverages, but he himself showed a weakness for alcohol, which led the young ruler to death at the age of only 28 years.

Murad's successor, his mentally ill brother Ibrahim, managed to significantly destroy the state he inherited before he was deposed in 1648. The conspirators placed Ibrahim's six-year-old son Mehmed IV on the throne and actually led the country until 1656, when the Sultan's mother achieved the appointment of grand vizier with unlimited powers talented Mehmed Köprülü. He held this position until 1661, when his son Fazil Ahmed Köprülü became vizier.

The Ottoman Empire still managed to overcome the period of chaos, extortion and crisis of state power. Europe was torn apart by religious wars and the Thirty Years' War, and Poland and Russia were in turmoil. This gave both Köprül the opportunity, after a purge of the administration, during which 30 thousand officials were executed, to capture the island of Crete in 1669, and Podolia and other regions of Ukraine in 1676. After the death of Ahmed Köprülü, his place was taken by a mediocre and corrupt palace favorite. In 1683, the Ottomans besieged Vienna, but were defeated by the Poles and their allies led by Jan Sobieski.