In what ways do new words appear? Methods of word formation in Russian with examples. Test questions to reinforce the material

What is a mistake in 21st century speech, how to improve literacy, and why do people in Russia like to write their job title with a capital letter? We talked about this and much more with candidate of philological sciences, senior researcher at the Institute of Russian Language of the Russian Academy of Sciences Elena Shmeleva.

“AiF.ru”: Elena Yakovlevna, what mistake in speech today can be called the most common and irritating to the ear?

Elena Shmeleva: This is a rather individual thing. Some people are annoyed by incorrect accents. My son once told me that he met a girl, he liked her, but after she said “they’re calling,” he immediately stopped liking her. What irritates me is not so much mistakes as the inability to distinguish the style of speech, that is, a person in public speech uses words and expressions that are acceptable only in the kitchen or in a beer bar. It seems to me that this is the main problem with our speech now. An educated, well-spoken person is one who, speaking in parliament, speaks in one language; when drinking with friends, it’s different. The inability to switch from one style to another is truly a problem in our speech.

“AiF.ru”: Do you have an answer to the question of how to learn to speak well?

Elena Shmeleva: This is a difficult science. Previously, we studied rhetoric and taught speakers how to speak. In order to speak well, there is one constant recipe - read more, listen to good speeches more. We imitate our parents, teachers, people we like, who we think speak well. We must try to rid our speech of unnecessary words and test ourselves. That's what dictionaries are for. But we have a very low culture of using them. In general, no one speaks perfectly; there are always difficult words that raise doubts. For example, one person you respect says one way, and another says something different. If you have any doubts, take the time to check it in the dictionary.

“AiF.ru”: In order to speak better, you advised listening to correct speech more, but what about improving literacy in written speech?

Elena Shmeleva: For this you also need to read more. Another question is that now books are often published without a proofreader. Why do they say that you need to read more? Because the eye gets used to writing a word, that is, without thinking, you write the word the way you are used to seeing it. Nowadays there are publications that have errors, and on the Internet people also write differently, so it happens that the eye gets used to incorrect spelling. I think that illiteracy that sometimes occurs in previously literate people is explained precisely by this reason.

“AiF.ru”: Elena Yakovlevna, it’s difficult to be literate in a country where everyone wants to write themselves with a capital letter. In our country there are a million different “Presidents”, “Chairmen of the Board of Directors”, “Managers”...

Elena Shmeleva: This is really some kind of obsession. For some reason, a capital letter is perceived as a sign of special importance. We have constant debates on this issue. According to the rules of the Russian language, in a compound name only the first word is written with a capital letter, for example, Moscow State University. In the phrase " The State Duma“Only “State” must be written with a capital letter. Our legislators constantly argue with us because they believe that the word “Duma” must be written with a capital letter. It is impossible to explain to people that a capital letter does not mean that you will become a more important person. They send us papers from the Federation Council, where it is written “Third Assistant Minister...”, all words with a capital letter. We try to explain that this is wrong, but, unfortunately, it doesn’t really work.

New words

“AiF.ru”: How do you assess the level of speech culture today?

Elena Shmeleva: If we talk specifically about language, then I would not say unequivocally that everyone spoke well before, but now it is much worse. People on the streets spoke as they said. Just earlier in the means mass media there was practically no live, spontaneous speech. Everything was written in advance, rehearsed, checked by editors. Therefore, there was a feeling that only correct speech was coming from the radio and television. And now there is a lot of lively speech. Relatively speaking, the speech of the street is heard from television screens. This, of course, irritates many people, because television and radio presenters, whose speech we are accustomed to perceive as role models, now speak the same way as the people around us. That is, it is not the Russian language that has changed, but, as linguists say, the conditions for the functioning of the language have changed.

“AiF.ru”: What is the rate of appearance of new words in the language today? Is it growing or falling?

Elena Shmeleva: The Internet helps new words spread throughout the country faster. Another thing is what to call a new word. Some borrowed or fashionable word appeared and very quickly spread across the Internet, everyone began to use it. But then this word may not gain a foothold in the language, fashion will pass - and that’s all. We are in no hurry to include new words in the dictionary. There are different systems of lexicography. People sometimes ask me why American dictionaries are larger than ours, do they have so many more words? The tradition of Russian lexicography is that we wait for a word to actually enter the Russian language, we wait for some time. And American lexicographers, as soon as a word appears in the language, add it to the explanatory dictionary the same year.

"AiF.ru": How long do they wait to add a word?

Elena Shmeleva: Not only time plays a role, but also the breadth of use. Usually, the word is first included in a dictionary of new words or a dictionary foreign words, and new words are entered into the explanatory dictionary, as a rule, after ten or even twenty years. But I say this only tentatively. It happens that it quickly becomes clear that a word seems familiar and widely used to everyone, but it is still not in the explanatory dictionary, since our explanatory dictionaries are republished quite rarely. It turns out that in our explanatory dictionaries Not only are there not many words, but there are also not many new meanings. For example, the words “positive” and “negative” have only a photographic meaning, and given the fact that most people now take pictures digital cameras, it turns out quite funny, because the meaning of these words now is completely different. But this is not in the dictionaries, and this is bad, because dictionaries must still manage to keep up with the times.

Basic methods of word formation.

Laws of word formation with examples:

1) Take into account lexical meaning words (handcuffs<= рука (ручники по смыслу не подходят)-приставочно-суффиксальный)

2) The derivative and productive stems must differ by a minimum of morphemes (for free => for free - prefix)

3) Take into account parts of speech (behind our FOREST - non-productive, but to go FOREST - transition from one part of speech to another)

I) Suffixal

Adverbs ending in -o, -e (lightning-fast)
Verbs with the suffixes -yva-, -iva-, -va- (consider – consider)
Nouns with the suffixes -eni-, -ni-, -i-, -ti- (position – put)

II) Transition from one part of speech to another (I think it’s not worth explaining, since everything is clear)

III) Prefix (if the word exists in the language and explains the original word)

Verbs (affects-acts...)
Adverbs (forever – always...)
Noun (superman – man...)
Adjective (hyperactive – active….)
Pronoun (never – when, nowhere – where..)

IV) Prefix-suffixal (the main thing is that the word logically explains the original)

Verbs (scatter - run...)
Adjective (helpless - help...)
Noun (snowdrop - snow, pomorie - sea...)
Adverbs (in my opinion - my..., firstly - first..., again - new..., to the right - right)

V) Suffixless (only nouns by cutting off the ending and suffix from the generating word)

Image. from the verb (meaning of action) (heating - to heat, looking - to look, running - to run....)
Image. from adjectives nouns with “-ь” (width - wide, distance - distant...)

VI) Addition of stems (easy, but not to be confused with suffixation: Agricultural<= земледелие, суффиксальный )

VII) Addition and suffixation (there is no such thing on the Unified State Examination).

VIII) A method that is also not in the Unified State Examination. Postfixal is an affixal way of word formation, which uses a postfix as a means of word formation: bathe - bathe.

More about word formation methods

Word-formation analysis answers the questions:

What word is this word derived from?
How is this word formed?

The following methods of education are distinguished:

1) petitionerprostrateA ← petitioner(suffixal method, using the suffix –nits-);

3) underwindowsNickA ← windows o (prefix-suffix method, using the prefix sub- and suffix –nik-);

4) explosion← explosion at (same general part, method of formation – without suffix);

5) heels And floor ny ← five floor her (addition of two roots).

Rule #1.

Work only with the initial form of the word (for inflected parts of speech - nominative case, singular and, if possible, masculine gender, for verbs - indefinite form).

Trap!

re-read l ← re-read t (suffixal method). Error! –т and –л- are formative suffixes, i.e. these are forms of the same word.

Right: re-read, n.f. re chita th – chita t ( prefix method).

Rule #2.

If a word has a prefix, then try first of all to find a cognate word with a prefix.

Trap!

input ← move (additional method). Error! Progress – not the closest cognate word!

Right: entrance← entrance it (no suffix method).

Remember!

When analyzing word formation, remember that there are historical alternations of vowels and consonants:

E/o/i/a/zero sound (with br at - with bir at - with ber y);

Error: vish← whish nya (suffixal method, suffix –enn).

Right: cherries ny ← cherry I (suffixal method, suffix -n).

Hissing w, sh, ch, ts alternate with g-k, z-s, d-t ( start ah, empty it, Pushcha y);

B/bl, p/pl, v/vl, f/fl, m/ml ( love it, love yu, in love ennobled).

When choosing a cognate word, remember the following:

Part of speech	from what part of speech can it be formed	how
noun	noun	prefix, suffix, prefixal-suffixal
	adjective	suffixed, unsuffixed
	verb	suffixed, unsuffixed
adjective	noun	suffixal, prefix-suffixal
	adjective	prefixal
	verb	suffixal
verb	verb	prefix, suffix
	noun	suffixal, prefixal-suffixal
	adjective	suffixal, prefixal-suffixal
adverb	noun, adjective, adverb, numeral, pronoun	suffixal, prefixal-suffixal
adverb	participle	suffixal
participle, participle	verb only	suffixal only

Ways of word formation:

1) First of all, it is necessary to eliminate the method of transition from one part of speech to another.

Transition- This is a non-morphological method of word formation, which consists in changing the morphological characteristics of a word. Outwardly, this is manifested by the preservation of all morphemes and endings characteristic of the original part of speech, but by a change in the question asked of this word.

To the past (which?) Sunday we went to the circus. – It is necessary to remember (What?) past.

In the first case, by the way past the question is asked which?, i.e. the question is an adjective, and in the second What?– noun question. This means there has been a transition in the second sentence.

2) Prefix method.

Remember!The prefix does not change the part of speech!

Common models:

times/ras, over, super, ultra, extra + noun/adjective = noun/adjective.

anti, dez, counter, not, nor + noun/adjective = noun/adjective.

prefix + any unprefixed verb = verb.

3) Suffixal method (more often forms a new part of speech).

4) Prefix-suffix method.

5) Addition

When adding, usually two roots, parts of roots, words in a certain case are distinguished in a word, or the word is an abbreviation (MSU, Unified State Examination).

Algorithm of actions.

1) Write down the word in the initial form and highlight the ending or formative suffix (-ть, -ч or –ти for verbs).

2) Select the closest related word (it should include as many morphemes as possible of the word being analyzed) and highlight the ending or formative suffix.

3) Identify the common part of two words (matching morphemes)

4) Determine the method of formation using a morpheme that is not included in the general part.

Analysis of the task.

From the sentences, write down a word formed in a prefix-suffix way.

And I, first in kindergarten and then at school, bore the heavy cross of my father’s absurdity. Everything would be fine (you never know what kind of fathers anyone has!), but I didn’t understand why he, an ordinary mechanic, came to our matinees with his stupid accordion. I would play at home and not disgrace myself or my daughter!

Let's talk. If you need to find a word formed using a prefix and suffix, then they must be present in the word that needs to be written down. Let's try to find these words. There weren't that many of them: at first, absurdity, incomprehensible. Now let’s select the closest cognate “relative” to these words.

First - the beginning (they differ in both prefix and suffix, i.e. prefix-suffix method),

Absurdity – awkward (formed using the suffix –ost, method of formation – suffixal),

It’s unclear - it’s clear (they differ only in the prefix, which means this is a prefix method).

Thus, the correct answer is the word at first.

Practice.

1. From this sentence, write down a word formed in a prefix-suffix way.

I suddenly felt scared, as if the earth had broken off under me and I found myself on the edge of a bottomless abyss.

2. From this sentence, write down a word formed by a prefix.

But in the “virtual” he can appear as a prince on a white horse.

3. From these sentences, write down words formed in a suffixless way (using a zero suffix).

Insulting shouts and threats were heard. Barclay's adjutant had to draw his saber to pave the way to the carriage.

1) bottomless

2) appear

By analyzing dictionaries of neologisms, it is possible to identify the basic principles of the development and expansion of the lexical system in the Russian language. The following ways of appearing new words are distinguished:

1. Morphological, in which new formations in the language are the result of derivational (word-formation) processes. For example: “mental”, “small things”. Derivation involves the formation of new words according to certain models from morphemes that already exist in the language.

2. Lexico-semantic. In this case, new meanings appear for known words. For example: “pencil case” (type of garage), “zebra” - pedestrian crossing.

3. Lexico-syntactic (non-productive). With this method, word formation occurs on the basis of phrases. For example: “today”, “now”.

4. Morphological-syntactic (unproductive). This is a way in which one part of speech passes into another. For example: “thanks to” (whom?) is a gerund, (to what?) is a preposition.

5. External influence. Borrowing is one of the ways of word formation. This includes words such as “felt-tip pen”, “know-how”, “ikebana”, etc.

According to researchers, the result of word formations in our language is more than 90% of all new formations of the last few decades. The main method today remains morphological, when new words appear from stems and affixes already existing in the language. They are usually created based on existing words. For example: “PR specialist” - by analogy “argumentator”.

Question from apis on the subject Russian language 03/02/2020:

1. To the question: “What is the rate of emergence of new words in the modern Russian language?” , perhaps, it is very difficult to answer. But we know how they appear. We have prefixes, suffixes and different ways to connect them. What word is formed using a prefix and a suffix at the same time? Smart, bathroom, white-handed, glass holder, look younger 2. Read an excerpt from the story by M.A. Gorky's "Childhood": "Soon I was already reading the Psalter in the warehouses; they usually did this after evening tea, and every time I had to read a psalm. - Buki-people-az-la-bla; live-you-more-blessed “Our-er-blessed,” I said, moving my pointer along the page, and out of boredom asked: “Blessed is the husband, is this Uncle Yakov?” Try to read the words as the hero of the story read them, and write them in modern spelling. chambers, rtsy, izhe, sha, er, people, er, qi, er 3. The morphemic model is the patterns, patterns by which words are created in the Russian language. Find “extra” words that differ in morphemic pattern. Prevalence, maturity, praise, glorification, excitement, return