Features of Renaissance humanism. Humanism and the humanists of the Renaissance. Summary of theoretical issues

The second common method of conducting examinations is brainstorming method. This method, also known as “brainstorming”, “conference of ideas”, was proposed by the American scientist A. Osborne in 1955.

The main focus of the method is to identify new ideas and solutions. For this purpose, the organizers of the examination create an atmosphere most conducive to the generation of ideas (benevolence, support), freeing the expert from unnecessary constraint. The problem being discussed must be clearly formulated.

The brainstorming method is characterized by open expression of the opinions of specialists (at a special meeting) on ​​solving a specific problem. In this case, two conditions must be met: firstly, criticism of other people’s opinions is prohibited; secondly, it is expected to express any ideas to resolve this issue without taking into account immediate value or feasibility. All ideas expressed are recorded and, after discussion, are worked out in detail. At the same time, rational points in each of the assumptions made are identified and solutions are formulated based on their generalization. The advantage of the brainstorming method is the ability to make decisions in a relatively short time.

When implementing the method, the Pareto principle can be applied. After registering ideas from their entire pool, each expert selects 20% of the ideas that, from their point of view, deserve the most attention. This selection is also recorded. Next, those who received greatest number points.

In the brainstorming method, a significant role belongs to the organizer who conducted the examination. He knows about the ultimate goal of the examination, directing the discussion in the appropriate direction, but if the leader highlights only promising ideas from his point of view, the result of the examination will be less significant.

The use of this method eliminates the effect of conformity, i.e. opportunism, allows you to get productive results in a short time, involving all experts in an active creative process.

The best results of brainstorming are achieved in developing new products, improving products and existing ways of working, promoting marketing and sales, improving technical designs, and building a goal tree.

The brainstorming method is based on the following principles:

1. Two groups of people are involved in solving the problem - idea generators and experts. Idea generators bring together people with creative thinking, imagination and knowledge of science, technology and economics. Experts are usually people with a lot of knowledge and a critical mind. Experts play the role of analysts.

2. There should be no restrictions when generating. Any ideas are expressed, including obviously erroneous, humorous ones, without any evidence or feasibility study. The ideas expressed are usually recorded in a protocol, on a computer, on a dictaphone, etc. Thus, the basis of the method is the separation of the process of integrating ideas from the process of evaluating them.

3. The philosophical basis of the method is the theory of S. Freud, according to which the human consciousness is a muddy and fragile layer over the subconscious. Under normal conditions, a person’s thinking and behavior are determined by the basic consciousness, in which control and order reign: consciousness is “programmed” by habitual ideas and prohibitions. But through the thin crust of consciousness, dark elemental forces and instincts, raging in the subconscious, break through every now and then. These forces push a person to illogical actions, violation of prohibitions, and all sorts of irrational thoughts. The inventor has to overcome all psychological complexes and prohibitions caused by ideas about the possible and impossible.

The main advantage of the brainstorming method is the prohibition of criticism. But the ban on criticism is also a weakness of the method. To develop an idea, it is necessary to identify its shortcomings, and for this we need criticism.

The entire “attack” process can be divided into six stages:

1. A group of experts is formed. Usually its number is 10-15 people.

The composition of the group involves their targeted selection:

a) from persons of approximately the same rank, if the participants know each other;

b) from persons of different ranks, if the participants are unfamiliar with each other (in this case, each participant is assigned a number and subsequently addressed by number);

c) the group may include specialists from other fields of knowledge who have a high level of erudition and understand the meaning problematic situation.

2. A problem note is drawn up.

To prepare it, a problem situation analysis group is preliminarily formed. The note may contain the following information: the reasons for the problem situation, analysis of the causes and possible consequences problem situation, analysis of world experience in resolving similar problems (if any), classification (systematization) possible ways resolution of the situation, formulation of the problem situation in the form of a central question with a hierarchy of sub-questions.

3. Generation of ideas.

The facilitator reveals the contents of the problem note, reminds the participants of the brainstorming session about the following:

a) statements must be clear and concise;

b) skeptical remarks and criticism of previous speakers are prohibited;

c) each participant can perform multiple times, but not in a row;

d) it is not allowed to read out a list of ideas prepared by the participant in advance.

One of the main tasks of the presenter is to induce the mental receptivity of the participants, their will to purposeful thinking. The leader’s work is supposed to be active only at the beginning of the “assault”. Soon enough, the excitement of the participants reaches a critical point and the development of new ideas becomes spontaneous.

After this, the role of the presenter comes down to the following:

a) focus the participants’ attention on the problem situation;

b) not to announce, condemn or stop the research of any project;

c) support and encourage participants who need it;

d) create a relaxed atmosphere, thereby facilitating active work experts.

The duration of a brainstorming session can be 20-60 minutes (depending on the activity of the participants). It is advisable to record the ideas expressed so as not to forget and be able to systematize them later.

4. Systematization of ideas expressed at the third stage (generation).

This work is assigned to the problem situation analysis group.

At this stage:

a) a nomenclature list of all ideas expressed is compiled;

b) duplicate and additional ideas are identified, then they are combined with the main idea;

c) signs are identified by which ideas can be combined;

d) ideas are combined into groups according to the selected characteristics;

e) a list of ideas is compiled into groups; in each group, ideas are written according to the rule from general to specific.

5. Destruction (destruction) of systematized ideas.

Each of the systematized ideas is studied for the possibility of its implementation. Participants in the assault put forward arguments that refute the systematized idea. In the process of destruction, a counter-idea may appear. The process of destruction continues until the systematized idea is criticized.

6. Evaluating criticisms and compiling a list of actionable ideas.

At this stage, a summary table is compiled. The first column of the table is the stages of systematization of ideas, the second is critical comments refuting ideas, the third is indicators of the practical applicability of ideas, the fourth is counter-ideas.

Each criticism and counter-idea is then evaluated:

a) is deleted from the table if it is refuted by at least one indicator of practical applicability;

b) is not crossed out if not refuted by any indicator.

Compiled final list ideas. Only ideas that are not refuted by criticism or counter-ideas are transferred to the list.

The brainstorming method is often used when developing a tree of goals. With the help of experts, the tree itself is obtained, as well as the coefficient of the relative importance of the goals.

Basic concepts and terms on the topic: proto-Renaissance, Ducento, Trecento, Cinquecento, humanism.

Topic study plan:

1. Periodization of the era. Aesthetic ideals of the Renaissance. Leading genres of art.

2. The principles of humanism in the art of the Italian and Northern Renaissance.

Brief summary of theoretical issues:

Humanism as a characteristic feature of Renaissance art in Italy. Secular free-thinking, anti-clerical nature of works, appeal to antiquity, humanistic worldview, cult of beauty are the ethical, philosophical and aesthetic foundations of creativity.

Periodization of the era. Proto-Renaissance, Early, High and Late Renaissance. Golden Age of the Renaissance. Characteristics artistic culture.

Renaissance is a cultural era in the process of transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern Age. The cultural meaning of the era is the flowering of culture, a revolution in culture, a transitional cultural stage, the restoration of the ideals of antiquity. The complex of these characteristics forms a qualitatively new stage of culture. The special intensity of cultural life, the existence of many of its centers; diversity of creative manifestations, creative freedom; combination of vitality and aesthetics; excess spiritual energy; an amazing concentration on a small space-time period of great and universally gifted people.

The emergence of Renaissance culture in Italy. The main theme of art is man. The role of the Middle Ages, Christian religion, a new worldview that gave rise to new aesthetic ideals, enriching art with new subjects and new stylistics. The humanistic culture of the Renaissance and the dream of a new man and his new spiritual development. The perception of antiquity as a distant past and therefore as an “ideal that one can yearn for” and not as a “reality that can be used.”

Chronological framework of the Italian Renaissance: time from the second half of the 13th to the first half of the 16th centuries (end of the 12th–14th centuries - Proto-Renaissance (pre-Renaissance), or Trecento; 15th century - Early Renaissance (Quattrocento); end of the 15th - first third of the 16th centuries - High Renaissance ( cinquecento)). The year 1530 can rightfully be considered the end date of the development of the Renaissance.

Leading genres of art. The increasing role of painting. Masters of the early Renaissance in the fine arts.

The origins of humanism (Italy, XIV century). The essence of humanism is a person’s focus on himself - self-creation and self-worth.

New secular character of thinking and spiritual atmosphere of society. A new complex of humanitarian knowledge - grammar, philology, rhetoric, history, pedagogy, ethics.

The humanistic worldview of the Renaissance and real social changes: the decline of the authority of the church in people’s everyday lives, the desire for the liberation of the human personality, for the beauty of not only artistic images, but also clothing, food, and everyday life in general. Pride and self-affirmation, awareness of one’s own strength and talent become the hallmarks of society. The main humanistic ideas of philosophers: man has creative independence, he is beautiful and sublime both spiritually and physically; a person has dignity, his mind and thoughts are free. For the Renaissance humanists there was no absolute difference between man and God. Humanists saw the unity of man and God in the fact that God, like man, is a master, only one of them created the world, while man still has creative efforts ahead of him.

In ancient times, humanism was assessed as the quality of a well-mannered and educated person, elevating him above the uneducated. In the medieval era, humanism was understood as the qualities of the sinful, vicious nature of man, which placed him much lower than the angels and God. During the Renaissance, human nature began to be assessed optimistically; man is endowed with divine reason, capable of acting autonomously, without the tutelage of the church; sins and vices began to be perceived positively, as an inevitable consequence of life experimentation.

The task of educating a “new man” in the Renaissance is recognized as the main task of the era. The Greek word (“education”) is the clearest analogue of the Latin humanitas (where “humanism” comes from). Humanitas in the Renaissance concept implies not only the mastery of ancient wisdom, to which great importance was attached, but also self-knowledge and self-improvement. Humanitarian-scientific and human, learning and everyday experience must be united in a state of ideal virtu (in Italian, both “virtue” and “valor” - thanks to which the word carries a medieval knightly connotation).

Certain standards of good manners and education became the norm during the Renaissance; knowledge of classical languages, awareness of the history and literature of Hellas and Rome, the ability to write poetry and play music became a condition for occupying a worthy position in society. It was then that leading importance began to be given to reason and its ennoblement through upbringing and education. There was a belief in the possibility of improving the entire society through studia humanitas (humanities). It was then that Thomas More (1478–1535) and Tommaso Campanella (1568–1639) came up with projects to build an ideal society.

Some researchers talk about a new type of human dignity that was established during the Renaissance. It was conveyed by the concept of virtu and was determined by a person’s personal qualities, his talents, and intellectual abilities. In previous eras, a person’s dignity depended not on himself, but on belonging to an estate-corporate organization, a clan or a civil community. The rethinking of the idea of ​​virtu brought to life a new desire of man to demonstrate his talents and abilities, the desire for fame and material success as public recognition of his talents. It was then that competitions for sculptors, artists, musicians, public debates among intellectuals, and the crowning of the first poets with laurel wreaths began to be held. The sculptor Lorenzo Ghiberti (1381–1455), the architect Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446), the artists Giotto (1266–1337) and Masaccio (1401–1428), the poets Dante Alighieri (1265–1321) and Francesco Petrarca were recognized as the first in their fields of creativity. (1304–1374). Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) managed to excel in music, painting, invention, and engineering. Michelangelo (1475–1564) was recognized as the best in sculpture, but also in painting, architecture and poetry.

The ideal of life has changed. If previously the ideal of contemplative life (vita contemplativa) dominated, then in the Renaissance the ideal active life(vita activa). If previously innovation and experiment were condemned as sin and heresy, changing the natural world seemed unacceptable, now they have begun to be encouraged; passivity and monastic contemplation began to seem like a crime; The idea was established that God created nature to serve man and discover his talents. Hence the intolerant attitude towards inactivity and idleness. It was during the Renaissance that the principle was formulated: “time is money,” the author of which is called Alberti (1404–1472), but which every figure of the 15th–16th centuries could subscribe to. Then a decisive transformation of nature began, artificial landscapes began to be created, to which Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo were involved. Interest in earthly life, its joys, and the thirst for pleasure became the leading motives in the artistic creativity of Francesco Petrarch, Giovanni Boccaccio (1313–1375), Ariosto (1474–1533), Francois Rabelais (1494–1553) and other Renaissance writers. The same pathos distinguished the work of Renaissance artists - Raphael (1483–1520), Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Titian (1490–1576), Veronese (1528–1588), Tintoretto (1518–1594), Bruegel (1525–1569), Rubens (1577–1640), Durer (1471–1528) and other painters.

The establishment of intellectual autonomy was greatly facilitated by criticism of the medieval type of thinking, its dogmatism, and suppression by authorities. The main argument against scholasticism and dogmatics was drawn from the ancient ideological heritage. A special role in this was played by Lorenzo Valla, Niccolo Machiavelli, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Michel Montaigne and others.

During the Renaissance, the leading role of the urban population was determined: not only the intellectual elite, but also merchants and artisans, who were the most dynamic groups of Renaissance society. By the end of the 15th century, the level of urbanization in Northern Italy and Northern France reached fifty percent. The cities of these regions of Europe had the greatest monetary savings, which were invested in the development of the arts and education.

Literature the Renaissance and the main philosophical principles of this period. Reliance on examples of ancient literature. The principle of free development of the human personality in artistic creativity. Themes of man and the struggle against everything that interferes with his free development and happiness; love is a wonderful human feeling.

Proto-Renaissance in literature. “Sublime” and “earthly” in the literature of the Proto-Renaissance.

Humanistic motives in the works of Dante Alighieri - the last poet of the Middle Ages and the first poet of the New Age (the boundaries of the old, church-feudal, and the new - humanistic). “The Divine Comedy”: characteristic features of the spiritual life of the Middle Ages and features of the new cultural era - the Renaissance. Cycles of Dante's poems dedicated to Beatrice.

Francesco Petrarca – creator of Italian literary language. Petrarch is the first European humanist. Appeal to the works of Cicero, Seneca, Plato. Love for Laura is a symbol of devoted and sublime love. Petrarch is a symbol of the poet of love. Petrarch's sonnet cycles.

The secular nature of the Renaissance theater. The main features of the theater are the folk spirit, knowledge and consideration of national traditions. The theater is divided into folk and professional. The struggle between new and old. The emergence of the comedy of masks , where the main plot was the plot, and the characters, circumstances, and speech of the actors were improvisation. This theatrical form stood at the junction of old and new, since it is improvisation that gives birth to ideas and thoughts. Creative imagination, high acting skills, general culture and the outlook of the artists formed the stage art, in which it was possible to highlight its own principles, methods and techniques, where the viewer was also a participant in the performance.

Revival of theater's importance public life, in the formation of ideas and morals. Theater as a unique carrier and exponent of the thoughts and desires of the people, as Primary School art, history, culture. The appearance of the court (aristocratic) theater (a large, magnificent spectacle, with scenery, dancing, music).

Great playwrights: Lope de Vega and William Shakespeare.

W. Shakespeare's tragedies are the pinnacle of artistic generalization of characters and situations.

Music of the Italian Renaissance: folk origins, genre diversity (barcarolle, ballad, madrigal).

The development and improvement of various musical styles of the era is the foundation for a deeper understanding and creative approach to musical culture. Invention of music printing. Improvisation and music making separate species spiritual and cultural activities of people.

Development of instrumental music. Improving dance forms. New instrumental works - variations, preludes, fantasies.

Development of performance on the lute, organ, and wind instruments. Music playing is becoming widespread - the performance of pieces not only by famous composers, but also personal compositions.

Prerequisites for the flourishing of everyday and professional secular musical creativity, revealing the joys of life, ideas of humanism and bright images.

Secular and church music (the church school provides the society with composers, singers, and musicians). The emergence of the concept composers.

Portrait in painting.

Features of the spiritual life of the Renaissance:

Urban development secular culture, its democratization;

A radical change in worldview, the approval of a new view of the structure of the Universe, society, and man;

The emergence of progressive ideology - humanism;

Increased interest in the culture of antiquity;

The high role of aesthetic consciousness.

Art of the Northern Renaissance. The predominance of the portrait genre in painting. The appearance of the first printed books. “Praise of Stupidity” by E. Rotterdam is the pinnacle of German humanism. Shakespeare's tragedies.

French Renaissance: the Fontainebleau school - a fusion of literary and visual images (P. Ronsard, Rosso Fiorentino, F. Primaticcio, J. Goujon).

Features of the Renaissance in the Netherlands: Ghent Altarpiece by J. Van Eyck; P. Bruegel the Elder.

Renaissance in Germany: workshops of A. Durer's engravings.

Comparative characteristics Italian and Northern Renaissance.

Comparative analysis various art schools (according to formal characteristics of creativity).

Laboratory works - not provided.

Practical lessons- not provided.

Tasks for independent completion:

1. Prepare a message and presentation “The Renaissance”.

Independent work control form:

- oral survey,

Checking the notes.

Questions for self-control

The Dutch humanist Erasmus of Rotterdam (about 1469-1536), a Catholic writer, theologian, biblical scholar, and philologist, was not a philosopher in the strict sense of the word, but made a huge impact on his contemporaries. “He is amazed, praised and extolled,” wrote Camerari, “everyone who does not want to be considered a stranger in the kingdom of the muses.” As a writer, Erasmus of Rotterdam began to gain fame when he was already over thirty. This fame grew steadily, and his writings deservedly brought him the fame of the best Latin writer of his century. Better than all other humanists, Erasmus appreciated the mighty power of printing, and his activity is inextricably linked with such famous printers of the 16th century as Aldus Manutius in Venice, Johann Froben in Basel, Badius Ascensius in Paris, who immediately published everything that came out of his hands. pen. Thus, Erasmus of Rotterdam was the first to publish the full text of the Bible in Greek and Latin, based on the numerous ancient manuscripts at his disposal. Then, under pressure from the church, he was forced to make significant changes to the original printed text of the Bible in subsequent editions. The third edition of the Bible of Erasmus of Rotterdam later became the basis of the so-called “Textus Receprus” (Generally Accepted Text), which practically formed the basis of the canonical text of the Bible approved by the Catholic Church at the Council of Trent in 1565, and the basis of all translations of the Bible into national languages. Also, his famous work “In Praise of Stupidity” was translated into European languages ​​and sold tens of thousands of copies, a figure unheard of at that time. Until his works were banned in 1559 by the Council of Trent, Erasmus was perhaps the most published European author. With the help of the printing press - "an almost divine instrument," as Erasmus called it - he published one work after another and, through lively connections with humanists of all countries (as evidenced by eleven volumes of his correspondence), he led a kind of "republic of the humanities", just as Voltaire led the enlightenment movement in the 18th century. Tens of thousands of copies of Erasmus's books were his weapon in the fight against an entire army of monks and theologians who tirelessly preached against him and sent his followers to the stake.

Such success and such wide recognition were explained not only by the talent and exceptional ability of Erasmus of Rotterdam, but also by the cause to which he served and devoted his entire life. It was a great cultural movement that marked the Renaissance and only relatively recently, only in the last century, received the precise name “humanism.” Having arisen on the basis of fundamental economic and social changes in the life of medieval Europe, this movement was associated with the development of a new worldview, which, in contrast to religious theocentrism, placed man at the center of its attention, his diverse, by no means otherworldly, interests and needs, identifying the wealth inherent in him opportunities and affirmation of his dignity.

A prominent German humanist was Ulrich von Huten (1488-1523). Comparing his time with the previous Middle Ages, he exclaimed: “Reason has awakened! Living has become a pleasure!!” Addressing religious disputes between Catholics and Protestants, he said: “Eat each other until you are eaten!”

The French humanist Peter Ramus was killed by Catholic assassins during the infamous Night of St. Bartholomew in 1592. Ramus was a follower of Calvin and fell victim to religious fanaticism. Even at the beginning scientific activity Ramus came up with a bold thesis: “Everything that Aristotle said is fictitious.” He tried to prove the unfoundedness of the general foundations of Aristotle's logic, challenged the teachings of Stagirite. Ramus rejected both ontology and epistemology, as well as Aristotle's ethics. It is characteristic that Peter Ramus’s criticism of Aristotle’s teachings did not find support even from the Platonist Giordano Bruno, who called him a “French archpedant” who “understood Aristotle, but understood him poorly.”

Also, the New Latin poet Gessus, born in 1488 in Hesse, made a certain contribution to the development of humanism in the Renaissance, which is why he called himself Gessus. He also gave himself the name Helius because he was born on Sunday. His real name is Eoban Coch. He enjoyed great fame as a humanist, a friend of Erasmus of Rotterdam and Ulrich von Huten. Was a professor Latin language in Erfurt, teacher of rhetoric and poetry in Nuremberg and professor in Marburg. Possessing great improvisational talent and a thorough knowledge of the Latin language, he did not create anything lasting; it was a stormy, unstable nature, incapable of either energetic work or sincere and lasting devotion to ideas; even the turbulent era of the Reformation attracted him more by its external side than by the struggle for cherished ideals. Excesses, selfishness and selfish preservation of his interests ultimately alienated him from the humanists. Of his poetic works collected in "Eobani Hessi operum farragines duae", the more significant are "Sylvae" - a collection of idylls, epigrams and poems, and "Her o lden" - letters of saints from Mary to Cunegonde, where direct imitation of Ovid is felt. Of his translations, the Psalms (Marburg, 1537, more than 40 editions) and the Iliad (Basel, 1540) are especially famous.

The famous philosopher, orator, scientist, humanist and poet Aeneas Pico de la Mirandola (1463-1494) also contributed to the development of humanism. He knew perfectly all the Romano-Germanic and Slavic languages ​​and, in addition, ancient Greek, Latin, Old Hebrew (biblical hybrid), Chaldean (Babylonian) and Arabic languages. Mirandola amazed others with his knowledge even at the age of ten. The Spanish inquisitors began to persecute him from this childhood, claiming that “such a great depth of knowledge at such an early age cannot appear except through a contract with the devil.” In a speech prepared for the failed debate on the topic: “On the dignity of man” (De hominis dignitate), he wrote: “I have placed you in the middle of the world,” the Creator said to the first man, “so that you can look around and see everything that surrounds you all the more easily, I did not create you either as a heavenly or as a crude earthly being, neither as a mortal nor as an immortal, only so that you, by your own will and to your honor, would become your own sculptor and creator. You can descend to an animal and rise to a godlike being, beasts "They carry out from their mother's womb everything that they should have; the higher spirits, first, or soon after their birth, are what they remain forever. You alone have development, growth by free will; in you lies the germ of a varied life." . Mirandola owns a beautiful and meaningful expression: “Man is the smith of his own happiness” (Homo - fortunae suae ipse faber). Following the figures of the Renaissance, we now call humanitarian education that education that gives a person knowledge of languages ​​(including at least one of the ancient ones: Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Sanskrit or Pali), philosophy, history, and art.

Marsilio Ficino greatly praised the development of humanism. His philosophical views were strongly influenced by the magical-theurgic works of Trismegistus, Zoroaster and Orpheus. He personally believed that they shaped Plato's views. The meaning of philosophical activity for him is to prepare the soul in such a way that the intellect is able to perceive the light of divine revelation; in this respect, philosophy for him coincides with religion. Ficino conceives metaphysical reality according to the Neoplatonist scheme, in the form of a descending sequence of perfections. He has five of them: God, angel, soul, quality (= form) and matter. The soul acts as a “connection node” of the first two and last two steps. With characteristics over high world, she is capable of reviving the lower stages of existence. As a Neoplatonist, Ficino distinguishes between the soul of the world, the soul of the heavenly spheres and the soul of living creatures, but his interests are most closely related to the soul thinking man. In the above sequence, the soul either ascends towards the higher levels, or, on the contrary, descends towards the lower. On this occasion, Ficino writes: “It (the soul) is that which exists among mortal things without itself being mortal, since it enters and complements, but is not divided into parts, and when connected, it is not dispersed, as they conclude about it. And since while she rules the body, she also adjoins the divine, she is the mistress of the body, and not a companion. She is the supreme miracle of nature. Other things under God, each in itself, are separate objects: she is simultaneously all things. It contains images of divine things on which it depends, and it is also the cause and model for all things of a lower order, which it in some way produces. Being the mediator of all things, she penetrates everything. And if this is so, it penetrates into everything..., therefore it can rightly be called the center of nature, the mediator of all things, the cohesion of the world, the face of everything, the knot and bundle of the world.” Ficino’s theme of the soul is closely connected with the concept of “platonic love,” which he understands as love for God in all his manifestations.

The humanist of the English Renaissance was W. Shakespeare. He also portrayed a human personality who sets out to fight the feudal world. His “Romeo and Juliet” is the most prominent hymn of love. Their love is not only a passionate feeling that does not recognize any obstacles, but also, like any high love - feeling, which endlessly enriches the soul. Renaissance humanists argued that reality is the person himself, and not his nickname or any artificially pasted label (according to his origin or place in society). What is paramount in a person himself is his positive qualities and shortcomings; everything else, including family retellings and family responsibilities, is secondary. “What is a Montague?” - thinks thirteen-year-old Juliet, who, thanks to her feelings, has risen to an understanding of important, inevitable truths. “Is that what the face and shoulders, legs, chest and arms are called?” The love of Romeo and Juliet - an irrepressible, pure and heroic feeling - lasts only a few days. Power and strength are not on the side of lovers, but on the side of old forms of life, where a person’s fate is determined not by feelings, but by money, false concepts of family honor. But, despite the fact that the heroes die, light and truth, goodness and love triumph in the tragedy.

Representatives of the so-called civic humanism were Leonardo Bruni and Matteo Palmieri, who affirmed the ideal of active civil life and the principles of republicanism. In “In Praise of the City of Florence”, “History of the Florentine People”, and other works, Leonardo Bruni (1370/74--1444) presents the republic on the Arno as an example of Polish democracy, although he notes aristocratic tendencies in its development. He is convinced that only in conditions of freedom, equality and justice is it possible to realize the ideal of humanistic ethics - the formation of a perfect citizen who serves his native commune, is proud of it and finds happiness in economic success, family prosperity and personal valor. Freedom, equality and justice here meant freedom from tyranny, equality of all citizens before the law and respect for the rule of law in all spheres of public life. Bruni attached particular importance to moral upbringing and education, and saw in moral philosophy and pedagogy the practical “science of life” necessary for everyone to achieve earthly happiness. Leonardo Bruni - humanist and political figure, who for many years was the Chancellor of the Florentine Republic, an excellent expert in Latin and Greek, who made a new translation of Aristotle’s “Nicomachean Ethics” and “Politics”, a brilliant historian who for the first time turned to a serious study of documents about the medieval past of Florence - Bruni, highly revered by his fellow citizens, did an extraordinary amount for the development of Renaissance culture in the first decades of the 15th century. Under the influence of his ideas, civil humanism was formed, the main center of which throughout the 15th century. Florence remained.

In the works of Bruni's younger contemporary, Matteo Palmieri (1400-- 1475), especially in the dialogue “Civil Life,” the ideological principles of this direction found a detailed presentation and further development. Palmieri's moral philosophy is based on the concept of “natural sociality” of a person, hence the ethical maxim of subordinating personal interests to collective ones, “serving the common good.”

Humanism had a huge influence on the entire culture of the Renaissance, becoming its ideological core. The humanistic ideal of a harmonious, creative, heroic person was particularly fully reflected in the Renaissance art of the 15th century, which in turn enriched this ideal. artistic means. Painting, sculpture, architecture, which entered already in the first decades of the 15th century. on the path of radical transformation, innovation, creative discoveries, developed in a secular direction. In the architecture of this time, a new type of building was formed - a city dwelling (palazzo), a country residence (villa), and improved different kinds public buildings. The functionality of the new architecture is harmoniously connected with its aesthetic principles. The use of the order system established on an ancient basis emphasized the majesty of the buildings and at the same time their proportionality to the person. Unlike medieval architecture appearance buildings was organically combined with the interior. The severity and solemn simplicity of the facades are combined with spacious, richly decorated interior spaces. Renaissance architecture, creating a human habitat, did not suppress, but elevated him, strengthening his self-confidence. Sculpture moves from the Gothic to the Renaissance style by Ghiberti, Donatello, Jacopo della Quercia, the Rossellino brothers, Benedetto da Maiano, the Della Robbia family, and Verrocchio. The art of relief reaches a high level, marked by harmonious proportions, plasticity of figures, and secular interpretation of religious subjects. An important achievement of Renaissance sculpture of the 15th century. there was a separation from the architecture, the removal of a free-standing statue into the square (monuments to the condottieri in Padua and Venice). The art of sculptural portraiture is developing rapidly. Italian Renaissance painting developed primarily in Florence. Its founder was Masaccio. In his frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel, the glorification of images is inseparable from their vital reality and plastic expressiveness (the figures of Adam and Eve expelled from paradise). Titanism manifested itself in art and life. It is enough to recall the poet, the heroic images created by Michelangelo, and their creator himself, the artist, the sculptor. People like Michelangelo or Leonardo da Vinci were real examples of the limitless possibilities of man. Thus, we see that the humanists longed and strove to be heard, expressing their opinions, “clarifying” the situation, for the man of the 15th century got lost in himself, fell out of one belief system and has not yet established himself in another. Every figure of Humanism embodied or tried to bring his theories to life. Humanists not only believed in a renewed, happy intellectual society, but also tried to build this society on their own, organizing schools and giving lectures, explaining their theories to ordinary people. Humanism covered almost all spheres of human life.

Renaissance humanism, classical humanism- a European intellectual movement that was an important component of the Renaissance. It arose in Florence in the middle of the 14th century and existed until the middle of the 16th century; from the end of the 15th century it passed to Spain, Germany, France, partly to England and other countries.

Renaissance humanism is the first stage in the development of humanism, a movement in which humanism first emerged as an integral system of views and a broad current of social thought, causing a genuine revolution in the culture and worldview of the people of that time. The main idea of ​​the Renaissance humanists was the improvement of human nature through the study of ancient literature.

Term [ | ]

The original Latin form of this concept is studio humanitatis. In this form, it was introduced by the Renaissance humanists themselves, who reinterpreted Cicero, who at one time sought to emphasize that the concept of “humanity” as the most important result the culture developed in the ancient Greek city-states also took root on Roman soil.

The meaning of the term "humanism" in the Renaissance (as opposed to today's meaning of the word) was: "zealous study of everything that constitutes the integrity of the human spirit", since Lat. humanitas meant “the completeness and separateness of human nature.” Also, this concept was contrasted with the “scholastic” study of the “divine” (studio divina). This understanding studio humanitatis first received its justification as an ideological program for a new mental movement in the writings of Petrarch.

Renaissance "humanism" is not a defense of human rights, but a study of man as he is. Humanism, from the point of view of Petrarch and other philosophers, meant moving man to the center of the world, studying man in the first place. The term “humanism” in this regard is somewhat synonymous with the word “anthropocentrism” and is opposed to the term “theocentrism”. In contrast to the religious philosophy of Western Europe, humanistic philosophy sets as its task the study of man with all his earthly and unearthly needs. Instead of ontological questions, ethical questions come to the fore."

The word “humanist” appeared at the end of the 15th century. Actually, the term “humanism” in its current form, as noted by L. Batkin, was first used in 1808 by the teacher F. Niethammer; after G. Vogt’s work “” (1859), a discussion of the historical content and limits of this concept began in science.

The humanists of the 15th century themselves usually called themselves “orators”, less often “rhetorians”, thereby emphasizing their difference from university scientists, as well as their connection with the ancient traditions of ancient orators.

Concept and activity[ | ]

The humanists themselves talked about themselves as follows: Leonardo Bruni defined studio humanitatis so - “knowledge of those things that relate to life and morals, and which improve and adorn a person.” Salutati believed that this word combined “virtue and learning” (virtus atque doctrine), and “scholarship” presupposed the universality of knowledge based on mastery of “literature” (litterae), and “virtue” included spiritual meekness and benevolence (benignitas), meaning the ability to behave correctly. This virtue, according to humanists, was inseparable from classical education, and thus turned out to be not an innate quality, but something individually achieved through vigils over the classics. In the Renaissance, the idea of ​​cultivation reigned, the “cultivation” of the soul through the study of ancient authors, the ability, through humanistic pursuits, to realize and identify all the possibilities inherent in nature in the individual. Guarino Veronese wrote: “there is nothing more suitable and appropriate for acquiring virtues and good behavior than diligent reading of learned ancient writers.” Humanists believed that through humanistic pursuits a person would be able to realize all the possibilities inherent in the individual and cultivate his “virtues.” For Petrarch studio humanitatis were primarily a means of self-knowledge.

Modern scholars clarify interpretations: Paul Kristeller understands Renaissance humanism as “ professional area"activity approximately between - years, which consisted of studying and teaching a well-known set of disciplines (grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history and moral philosophy, including political philosophy) on the basis of classical Greco-Latin education. Thus, as Batkin notes, such boundaries of humanism do not coincide with the medieval quadrivium, differ from the traditional nomenclature of the liberal arts and show a serious gap between humanism and the then university education (law, medicine, natural science, logic, theology, philosophy in understanding of natural philosophy).

E. Garen interprets Renaissance humanism as a new worldview, which led to a comprehensive change in culture and was an important stage in history and philosophy, and all thinking in general. The center of interests of humanists was “literature” - philology and rhetoric, the Word was at the center of philosophy, and the cult of beautiful and pure classical speech reigned. The word was identified with Knowledge and Virtue, it was understood as the embodiment of the universal and divine human nature, as its harmonious ethos and an instrument of practical human activity in the circle of friends, family and native community (ideal homo civilis).

Humanistic “literature” made it possible to develop a new worldview, which was imbued with criticism, secularism, contrasted itself with the themes and methods of medieval scholasticism and, in addition, made it possible for the first time to understand the historical distance in relation to antiquity.

The lifestyle and ideals of the humanists[ | ]

Humanistic pursuits, as a rule, remained a private matter of humanists, their hobby, not being their profession, although they brought reputation, and as a result, gifts from patrons.

The Renaissance humanists were an informal group of like-minded people who were distinguished by their inner content, and not by their official type of activity. Representatives of completely different strata, conditions and professions became humanists. Although some of the humanists were members of old guilds and corporations, what united them had nothing to do with this: “their meeting place was a country villa, a monastery library, a bookstore, a sovereign’s palace, or simply a private house, where it’s comfortable to talk, leaf through manuscripts, and look at antique medals. In imitation of the ancients, they began to call their circles academies". (See for example Plato's Academy in Careggi). Batkin notes that, apparently, humanists were the first intellectuals in European history; other researchers agree that “the emergence of that category of people who later came to be called humanists, in essence, marked the beginning of the process of emergence in this era secular intelligentsia". The unifying feature for the circle of humanists was an exclusively spiritual community, which remained too broad and unrelated to material interests; “the line between humanism as a state of mind and as an activity is conditional.” Vergerio points out that humanism is not a profession, but a calling, and denounces people who turn to literature for the sake of money and honors, and not for the sake of learning and virtue.

An important component studio humanitatis in the ideas of the humanistic environment there was “leisure” (otium, ozio), filled with high pursuits, sweet and gratifying, always contrasted with service and various business duties (negotium, ufficio). Freedom to manage your time and yourself is a precondition for becoming a humanist. Lorenzo Valla lists five important conditions required for academic studies:

1. "Communication with educated people" (litteratorum consuetudo)
2. "Abundance of Books"
3. "Comfortable spot"
4. "Free time" (temporis otium)
5. "Peace of Mind" (animi vacuitas), a special “emptiness, unfilledness, release of the soul”, making it ready to be filled with learning and wisdom.

Humanists are reviving the philosophy of Epicureanism, which promotes pleasure - but primarily spiritual, not sensual (Cosimo Raimondi, "Defense of Epicurus", about 1420s; Lorenzo Valla, dialogue “On pleasure (On true and false good)”, 1433). The typical idea of ​​the Renaissance is questa dolcezza del vivere(“this sweetness of life”).

At the same time, there was a concept about the close connection between the ideals of contemplative life (vita contemplativa) and active (vita activa), Moreover, the latter had to be aimed at the benefit of society. Humanist scientists considered themselves teachers (Pier-Paolo Vegerio, Guarino Veronese, Vittorino da Feltre) and considered their main task to educate a perfect person who, thanks to a humanitarian education, can become an ideal citizen. Sciences are studied in order to make people free. In chapter XIV - beginning. XV centuries Coluccio Salutati and Leonardo Bruni put forward a new ideal of civil life, close to the Florentines (vita civile), in which classical education became inseparable from active political activity for the good of the republic - see Civic Humanism. Northern Italian humanists who lived in monarchies more closely associated the idea of ​​a perfect citizen with the ideal of a perfect sovereign; they also developed the ideal of a courtier obedient to him.

New ideal of man[ | ]

In this environment, a new ideal of personality arose, generated by the secular and classical aspirations of the humanistic worldview. It was developed in humanistic literature.

The main principle of the entire humanistic ethics of the Renaissance was the doctrine of the high purpose of man, of his dignity - dignitas. He said that man, endowed with reason and an immortal soul, possessing virtue and limitless creative possibilities, free in his actions and thoughts, was placed at the center of the universe by nature itself. This doctrine was based on the views of ancient philosophy and also partly on the medieval theological doctrine that man was created in the image and likeness of God.(In essence, it was directed against Christian asceticism with its predetermination of a person’s place in the hierarchy). One of the ancient sources of this idea was Cicero's dialogue "About laws."

“Nature, that is, God, has invested in man a heavenly and divine element, incomparably more beautiful and noble than anything mortal. She gave him talent, the ability to learn, reason - divine properties, thanks to which he can explore, distinguish and know what should be avoided and what should be followed in order to preserve himself. In addition to these great and priceless gifts, God also placed in the human soul moderation, restraint against passions and excessive desires, as well as shame, modesty and the desire to earn praise. In addition, God instilled in people the need for a strong mutual connection, which supports community, justice, fairness, generosity and love, and with all this a person can earn gratitude and praise from people, and favor and mercy from his creator. God has also placed in man’s chest the ability to withstand every labor, every misfortune, every blow of fate, to overcome every difficulty, to overcome sorrow, and not to be afraid of death. He gave man strength, fortitude, firmness, strength, contempt for insignificant trifles... Therefore, be convinced that man is born not to drag out a sad existence in inaction, but to work on a great and grandiose cause. By this he can, firstly, please God and honor him and, secondly, acquire for himself the most perfect virtues and complete happiness.”

Discussions on this topic were a favorite subject of humanists (Petrarch; Alberti, treatise "About family", 1433-43, 41; Manetti, treatise "On the Dignity and Superiority of Man" 1451-52; Ficino; Pico della Mirandola, "It's about human dignity" 1486) .

All their reasoning was imbued with one main idea - admiration for reason and its creative power. Reason is an invaluable gift of nature, which distinguishes man from all things, making him godlike. For the humanist, wisdom was the highest good available to people, and therefore they considered propaganda their most important task classical literature. In wisdom and knowledge, they believed, a person finds true happiness - and this was his true nobility.

In contrast to the medieval and feudal ideal of the individual (religious and class), the new ideal, the humanistic one, had a clearly defined secular and social orientation. Humanists, drawing on the ancients, reject the importance of origin in assessing the dignity of a person, which now depends on his individual qualities.

Virtue [ | ]

A common feature of the worldview of the early humanists, which stemmed from their inherent desire to revive as much as possible the ideas and spirit of ancient culture, while preserving all the main content Christian doctrine, consisted of his paganization, that is, saturation with ancient, “pagan” moral and philosophical ideas. For example, Eneo Silvio Piccolomini, one of the humanists of this era, wrote that “Christianity is nothing more than a new, more complete presentation of the doctrine of the highest good of the ancients”- and, characteristically, Piccolomini will become Pope Pius II.

Any reasoning of humanists was supported by examples from ancient history. They loved to compare their contemporaries with the outstanding “men of antiquity” ( uomini illustri): the Florentines preferred the philosophers and politicians of Republican Rome, and the feudal circles preferred the generals and Caesars. At the same time, turning to antiquity was not felt as a resurrection of the dead - the proud feeling of being direct descendants and continuers of traditions allowed humanists to remain themselves: “the half-forgotten treasures of art and literature of antiquity are brought to light with jubilation, like expensive, long-lost property.”

Attitude to Christianity[ | ]

Humanists never opposed themselves to religion. At the same time, opposing themselves to scholastic philosophizing, they believed that they were reviving the true Church and faith in God, without finding any contradiction in the combination of Christianity with ancient philosophy.

“Praising the human mind, humanists saw in rational human nature the image of God, what God endowed man with so that man could perfect and improve his earthly life. As a rational being, man is a creator and it is in this that he is similar to God. Therefore, a person’s duty is to participate in the world, and not to leave it, to improve the world, and not to look at it with ascetic detachment as something unnecessary for salvation. Man and the world are beautiful, because they were created by God, and man’s task is to improve the world, making it even more beautiful, in this man is a co-worker with God.” Thus, humanists argue with the work written by Pope Innocent III “On contempt for the world, or on the insignificance of human life”, where the body is humiliated and the spirit is praised, and they strive to rehabilitate the bodily principle in man (Gianozzo Manetti): The whole world created by God for man is beautiful, but the pinnacle of his creation is only man, whose body is many times superior to all other bodies. How amazing, for example, are his hands, these “living tools”, capable of any kind of work! Man is a reasonable, prudent and very insightful animal (...animal rationale, providum et saga...), it differs from the latter in that if every animal is capable of one activity, then a person can engage in any of them. Spiritual-physical man is so beautiful that he, being the creation of God, at the same time serves as the main model according to which the ancient pagans, and after them Christians, depict their gods, which contributes to the worship of God, especially among more rude and uneducated people. God is the creator of all things, while man is the creator of the great and beautiful kingdom of culture, material and spiritual.

At the same time, in relation to the clergy, humanists experienced more negative emotions: “the weakening of the humanists’ ties with the church, since many of them lived on the income received from their professional activities (as well as from noble and wealthy people who were independent of the church), increased their hostility in relation to official scholarship, imbued with the church-scholastic spirit. For many of them, such hostility developed into a sharply critical attitude towards the entire system of this scholarship, towards its theoretical and philosophical foundations, to authoritarianism, outside and without which this scholarship could not exist. It is also important to recall that the humanistic movement began in Italy during the era of the decline of the moral and political authority of the papacy associated with the events of its Avignon captivity (1309-1375), frequent schisms catholic church, when antipopes appeared in opposition to the legitimate popes and when the supremacy of popes in the life of the church was disputed at church councils (...) The revival of this [classical Latin] language was a form of criticism of the prevailing church-scholastic scholarship and religious practice, which operated on “spoiled”, inexpressive Latin, distant from ancient Roman classical images." Critical studies of the history of the Catholic Church appear (“On the forgery of the Gift of Constantine”).

Humanistic theory of art[ | ]

An important theorist and practitioner working on this topic was Leon Battista Alberti. At the heart of early humanistic aesthetics was the idea of ​​the ability of art to be imitated, borrowed from antiquity. "Imitation of Nature" ( imitatio, imitatio) is not simple copying, but a creative act with a conscious selection of the most perfect. The idea of ​​“art” (as a craft) was introduced in conjunction with talent, genius (individual interpretation by the artist) - ars et ingenium, as a formula for the aesthetic assessment of a work of art. The concept of “similarity” ( similitudo) - as a direct likeness necessary for a portrait.

Genres of humanist creativity[ | ]

Epistoles [ | ]

Letters (epistoles) were one of the most common genres of humanist creativity. They used letters not for the exchange of topical and personal information, but for general reasoning and exercises in literature according to the Cicero model. The epistole was often sent not only to the addressee, but also to his friends, who, in turn, made copies of it, so that as a result the message was distributed in many copies. In essence, it was not a “letter”, as this concept is interpreted today, but a composition of a special literary genre, which in some ways anticipated journalism. Since the time of Petrarch, the letters of humanists from the very beginning were intended specifically for publication.

The style of these letters was characterized by solemnity and publicity. As the researchers note, perhaps “no other type of source so expressively shows the artificiality, contrivedness, and stylized nature of the life and communication of humanists as their epistles.” Characteristic subgenres of epistol:

• consolatoriae- "consolation"
• hortatoriae- "inspirational appeal"

The authors, having accumulated a sufficient number of epistles, compiled collections of them, which they included in their lifetime collections of works. This is what Petrarch did, for example, from whom everyone took an example. Petrarch revised and edited his "Letters to Loved Ones" retroactively (the first two books of these Letters are dated 1330-40, but were actually rewritten c. 1351-40 and revised and corrected until 1366). Some of these letters were even addressed to the long-deceased Cicero or Seneca, which allowed the author to express his position on various issues.

The Renaissance is an era in the history of European culture of the 13th-16th centuries, which marked the advent of the New Age. The Renaissance is one of the most striking phenomena in the history of European culture. The ideological roots of the Renaissance went back to antiquity, but also to the secular traditions of medieval culture. Here the work of Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) can be considered a unique starting point. His “Divine Comedy” became the herald of a new era.

Since the XIV-XV centuries. In the countries of Western Europe, a number of changes are taking place, marking the beginning of a new era, which went down in history under the name of the Renaissance. These changes were associated primarily with the process of secularization (liberation from religion and church institutions), which took place in all areas of cultural and social life. Independence in relation to the church acquires not only economic and political life, but also science, art, philosophy. True, this process occurs very slowly at first and proceeds differently in different countries Europe.

The new era recognizes itself as a revival of ancient culture, an ancient way of life, a way of thinking and feeling, which is where the name Renaissance comes from, i.e. Revival. In reality, however, the Renaissance man and the Renaissance culture and philosophy differ significantly from the ancient one. Although the Renaissance contrasts itself with medieval Christianity, it arose as a result of the development of medieval culture, and therefore bears features that were not characteristic of antiquity.

It would be wrong to assume that the Middle Ages did not know antiquity at all or rejected it completely. It has already been said what a great influence Platonism, and later Aristotelianism, had on medieval philosophy. In the Middle Ages Western Europe read Virgil, quoted Cicero and Pliny the Elder, loved Seneca. But at the same time there was a strong difference in attitude towards antiquity in the Middle Ages and in the Renaissance. The Middle Ages treated antiquity as an authority, the Renaissance - as an ideal. Authority is taken seriously and followed without distance; the ideal is admired, but admired aesthetically, with a constant sense of distance between it and reality.

The most important distinguishing feature of the Renaissance worldview is its orientation towards art: if the Middle Ages can be called a religious era, then the Renaissance can be called an artistic and aesthetic era par excellence. And if the focus of antiquity was natural-cosmic life, in the Middle Ages - God and the associated idea of ​​salvation, then in the Renaissance the focus is on man. Therefore, the philosophical thinking of this period can be characterized as anthropocentric.

Humanism is a moral position that expresses recognition of the value of a person as an individual, respect for his dignity, and the desire for his good as the goal of the social process.

In medieval society, corporate and class ties between people were very strong, so even outstanding people acted, as a rule, as representatives of the corporation, the system that they headed, like the heads of the feudal state and the church. In the Renaissance, on the contrary, the individual acquires much greater independence; he increasingly represents not this or that union, but himself. From here grow a person’s new self-awareness and his new social position: pride and self-affirmation, awareness of one’s own strength and talent become the distinctive qualities of a person. In contrast to the consciousness of the medieval man, who considered himself entirely indebted to tradition - even when he, as an artist, scientist or philosopher, made a significant contribution to it - the individual of the Renaissance tends to attribute all his merits to himself.

It was the Renaissance that gave the world a number of outstanding individuals who had a bright temperament, comprehensive education, and stood out from the rest with their will, determination, and enormous energy.

Versatility is the ideal of the Renaissance man. The theory of architecture, painting and sculpture, mathematics, mechanics, cartography, philosophy, ethics, aesthetics, pedagogy - this is the range of activities, for example, of the Florentine artist and humanist Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472). Unlike the medieval master, who belonged to his corporation, workshop, etc. and achieved mastery precisely in this area, the Renaissance master, freed from the corporation and forced to defend his honor and his interests, sees the highest merit precisely in the comprehensiveness of his knowledge and skills.

Here, however, it is necessary to take into account one more point. We now know well how many different practical skills and abilities any peasant must have - both in the Middle Ages and in any other era - in order to properly run his farm, and his knowledge relates not only to agriculture, but also to the masses other areas: after all, he builds his own house, puts simple equipment in order, raises livestock, plows, sews, weaves, etc. and so on. But all this knowledge and skills do not become an end in themselves for the peasant, as well as for the artisan, and therefore do not become the subject of special reflection, much less demonstration. The desire to become an outstanding master - artist, poet, scientist, etc. - the general atmosphere that surrounds gifted people with literally religious worship contributes: they are now a little like heroes in antiquity, and saints in the Middle Ages.

This atmosphere is especially characteristic of circles of so-called humanists. These circles previously arose in Italy - in Florence, Naples, Rome. Their peculiarity was their opposition to both the church and the universities, these traditional centers of medieval learning.

Let us now see how the Renaissance understanding of humanism differs from the ancient one. Let us turn to the reasoning of one of the Italian humanists, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494), in his famous “Speech on the Dignity of Man.” Having created man and “placing him at the center of the world,” God, according to this philosopher, addressed him with the following words: “We do not give you, O Adam, neither a specific place, nor your own image, nor a special duty, so that both a place and face, and you had a duty to at will, according to your will and your decision. The image of other creations is determined within the limits of the laws we have established. You, not constrained by any limits, will determine your image according to your decision, into the power of which I leave you.”

This is not at all an ancient idea of ​​​​a person. In antiquity, man was a natural being in the sense that his boundaries were determined by nature and the only thing that depended on him was whether he would follow nature or deviate from it. Hence the intellectualistic, rationalistic character of ancient Greek ethics. Knowledge, according to Socrates, is necessary for moral action; a person must know what goodness consists of, and having known this, he will certainly follow what is good. Figuratively speaking, ancient man recognized nature as his mistress, and not himself as the master of nature.

In Pico we hear echoes of the teaching about a person to whom God has given free will and who must decide his own destiny, determine his place in the world. Man here is not just a natural being, he is the creator of himself and this distinguishes him from other natural beings. He is master over all nature. This biblical motif has now been significantly transformed: in the Renaissance, the characteristic medieval conviction in the sinfulness of man and the depravity of human nature gradually weakens, and as a result, man no longer needs divine grace for his salvation. As a person realizes himself as a creator own life and fate, he also turns out to be an unlimited master over nature.

Man did not feel such strength, such power over everything that exists, including himself, either in antiquity or in the Middle Ages. He no longer needs the mercy of God, without which, due to his sinfulness, he, as was believed in the Middle Ages, could not cope with the shortcomings of his own “damaged” nature. He himself is a creator, and therefore the figure of the artist-creator becomes, as it were, a symbol of the Renaissance.

Any activity - be it the activity of a painter, sculptor, architect or engineer, navigator or poet - is now perceived differently than in antiquity and the Middle Ages. The ancient Greeks placed contemplation above activity (the only exception was government activity). This is understandable: contemplation (in Greek - “theory”) introduces a person to what is eternal, that is, to the very essence of nature, while activity immerses him in the transient, vain world of “opinion”. In the Middle Ages, attitudes towards activity changed somewhat. Christianity views labor as a kind of atonement for sins (“by the sweat of your face you will eat your bread”) and no longer considers labor, including physical labor, to be a slavish activity. However highest form The activity recognized here is that which leads to the salvation of the soul, and it is in many ways akin to contemplation: this is prayer, liturgical ritual, reading sacred books. And only during the Renaissance creative activity acquires a kind of sacred (sacred) character. With its help, a person not only satisfies his purely earthly needs, he creates new world, creates beauty, creates the highest thing that exists in the world - himself.

And it is no coincidence that it was during the Renaissance that for the first time the line that previously existed between science (as the comprehension of existence), practical and technical activity, which was called “art,” and artistic fantasy was blurred. An engineer and artist now is not just an “artist”, a “technician”, as he was in antiquity and the Middle Ages, but a creator. From now on, the artist imitates not just God’s creations, but divine creativity itself. In God's creation, that is, natural things, he strives to see the law of their construction.

It is clear that such an understanding of man is very far from the ancient one, although humanists recognize themselves as reviving antiquity. The watershed between the Renaissance and antiquity was drawn by Christianity, which snatched man from the cosmic element, connecting him with the transcendent Creator of the world. A personal union with the Creator, based on freedom, took the place of the former - pagan - rootedness of man in the cosmos. The human personality (“inner man”) acquired a value never before seen. But all this value of personality in the Middle Ages rested on the union of man with God, i.e. was not autonomous: in itself, in isolation from God, man had no value.

The cult of beauty characteristic of the Renaissance is associated with anthropocentrism, and it is no coincidence that painting, depicting, first of all, the beautiful human face and human body, became the dominant form of art in this era. In the great artists - Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, the worldview of the Renaissance receives its highest expression.

During the Renaissance, the value of the individual person increased as never before. Neither in antiquity nor in the Middle Ages was there such a burning interest in the human being in all the diversity of its manifestations. The originality and uniqueness of each individual is placed above all else in this era. Refined artistic taste is able to recognize and emphasize this uniqueness everywhere; originality and difference from others becomes the most important sign of a great personality.

Therefore, one can often come across the statement that it was during the Renaissance that the concept of personality as such was first formed. And in fact, if we identify the concept of personality with the concept of individuality, then such a statement will be completely legitimate. However, in reality the concept of personality and individuality should be distinguished. Individuality is an aesthetic category, while personality is a moral and ethical category. If we consider a person from the point of view of how and in what way he differs from all people, then we look at him as if from the outside, with the eye of an artist; In this case, we apply only one criterion to a person’s actions - the criterion of originality. As for personality, the main thing in it is different: the ability to distinguish between good and evil and act in accordance with such a distinction. Along with this, the second most important definition of personality appears - the ability to bear responsibility for one’s actions. And the enrichment of individuality does not always coincide with the development and deepening of personality: the aesthetic and moral and ethical aspects of development can significantly diverge from each other. Thus, the rich development of individuality in the XIV-XVI centuries. often accompanied by extremes of individualism; the intrinsic value of individuality means the absolutization of the aesthetic approach to man.

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