Make a plan on the topic of political participation of citizens. Elections as a form of political participation. Topic: "Political Leadership"
Rating system Unified State Exam results not easy: instead of the usual “fours” and “fives” you will encounter primary and test scores. What is primary and test score, is not difficult to understand. It is much more difficult to understand exactly how the primary scores are converted into test scores.
Primary and test score of the Unified State Exam: definitions
Primary score- This preliminary USE score. The primary score is obtained by summing the scores for correctly completed tasks. For example, a correctly completed assignment of Part A or Part B is scored 1 point, Part C - up to 6 points. Maximum amount primary points for all tasks of control measuring materials (CMM) in different subjects ranges from 39 to 80 points.
Test score- This final USE score. It is obtained from the primary one using a special table. Every year, each subject has its own special table.
Example: in 2013, a graduate received a primary score of 35 on the Unified State Exam in history. According to the table, his test score will be 58/ And his neighbor on the desk, taking the same history, received one primary score more - 36. His test score according to the table will be 60.
The number of test scores you need to strive for must be higher than the minimum established for a given subject. But, as a rule, graduates who are going to receive higher education, they know in advance how many test points they need to score to enter a university for their chosen specialty, since universities publish this information.
Converting primary scores to test scores
As we have already said, there are tables for converting primary scores into test scores. The Unified State Exam assessment system is such that even knowing his primary score, a graduate will not be able to accurately determine his test score on his own, since new tables are compiled every year. It takes 6-8 days to convert primary scores into test scores.
However, in fairness it is worth noting that the tables different years do not differ very much: in some subjects the number of test points remains the same, in others it changes by 2-3.
The correspondence between the 2018 Unified State Exam primary scores and test scores in all academic subjects using a 100-point assessment system is determined by Rosobrnadzor documents.
Scale for converting USE 2018 scores from primary to test scores
To confirm the mastery of the educational program of secondary general education in each academic subject, except for the Unified State Examination in mathematics basic level, the minimum number of Unified State Examination points is established according to a 100-point assessment system.
Also, according to the 100-point assessment system, the minimum number of Unified State Examination points for each academic subject required for admission to a university to study in undergraduate and specialty programs is established.
There is a difference in the minimum scores for obtaining a certificate and entering a university only in the Russian language.
Please note that universities themselves may raise the minimum thresholds. For accurate information, see the official websites of universities.
The results are valid for 4 years following the year in which such results were obtained.
And those who decide to continue their education at a university will find some useful tips useful.
Browse sites and call admissions committees selected universities.
Find out about the deadlines for submitting documents, about entrance examinations and the timing of their conduct (if they are provided for in the admission rules of a given university). Find out exactly what documents need to be provided. Make sure that the deadlines for passing additional tests conducted by the university independently (if any) are different. educational institutions didn't match.
Remember that you can apply to a maximum of five universities; in each of them - for no more than three areas of training (specialty), for different shapes training.
Collect everything Required documents and clarify how to submit them to the university.
Unsatisfactory result
If a Unified State Examination participant receives a result below the established minimum number of points in one of the compulsory subjects, he has the right to retake it in additional periods provided for by the unified schedule.
If a USE participant (all categories) does not receive the minimum number of USE points in elective subjects, retaking the USE for such USE participants is provided only after a year.
parliamentary elections in single-mandate constituencies, the creation of a real civil society and civilly responsible parties. The result is the strengthening of the political system in the country and the formation of a genuine civil society.
The very situation in which the country finds itself requires strengthening the vertical of executive power from top to bottom. This is due to various reasons, but primarily due to the fact that it is necessary to coordinate the actions of the executive branch throughout Russia. The possibility of such measures has been discussed for quite some time. However, it is worth noting that with the emerging trend towards the centralization of state power, the concentration of greater powers in the hands of the President, it is necessary to keep in mind the fact that such a system can function only if a strong, politically active person is in power. This aspect must be taken into account when carrying out reform, otherwise the entire system may become ineffective.
Toporkov S. S.
ELECTIONS AS A FORM OF POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
Elections to political authorities in modern society represent a major socio-political action, the main goal of which is the reproduction of the political elite, the legitimate restoration of public representation in the system of government leadership and management. Elections to government bodies form the basis of the democratic political process, which is based on legal norms that together constitute the right to vote. In the process of its implementation, various systems for counting votes and distributing seats in governing bodies emerged, and electoral systems arose: majoritarian, proportional and mixed.
Our country has accumulated considerable experience in the field of electoral legislation™." Moreover, as it now becomes clear, the process itself is far from completed. On December 3, 2004, State Duma deputies failed legislative framework iod the “consolidation” of parties and legitimized in the third reading a new procedure for electing governors. Thus, V.V. Putin proposed political reforms, the basic elements of which are the abandonment of elections in single-mandate districts to the State Duma and the use of a proportional system, as well as the abandonment of the election of governors by direct popular vote.
F| Federal Law “On Basic Guarantees of Citizens’ Electoral Rights” Russian Federation"(1994, amendments in 1997), Federal Law "On Elections of the President of the Russian Federation", Federal Law "On Elections of Deputies State Duma Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation" (1995), Federal Law "On the formation of the Federation Council of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation" (1995), Law "On basic guarantees of electoral rights and the right to participate in a referendum of citizens of the Russian Federation" (1997), Law "On elections of deputies of the State Duma Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation" (1999), Law "On the elections of the President of the Russian Federation" (1999), Law "On the formation of the Federation Council of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation" (2000).
The introduction of a proportional election system is aimed at establishing a multi-party system in Russia and should serve as an important and serious incentive for intensifying the activities of political parties. A deputy elected under a proportional system represents the interests of a larger number of voters than a single-mandate deputy. The transition to a proportional election system will significantly reduce the cost of forming representative government bodies and will help effectively prevent the penetration of crime into government structures.
New way the election of the lower house of the Federal Assembly will help reduce corruption in elections. To reduce it, because effective, uncorrupted power in 89 regions, which together occupy vast and, I emphasize, very different territories, is more like an illusion, a theoretical model, rather than a real life. Proteges of criminal structures will no longer apply for gubernatorial posts; they will not be able to overcome the Kremlin's tight control.
In addition, it is unlikely that it will be so easy for the appointed governors to forget about the people and focus solely on the Kremlin, as is said everywhere. A candidate who is disconnected from the problems of his region is unlikely to be able to count on the support of deputies of the regional assembly. In my opinion, other governors elected in the recent past by direct, secret, equal and universal suffrage do not always take care of regional interests. Others, on the contrary, seek to ignore all-Russian interests. In this regard, an urgent need arose to create a balanced mechanism for the formation of state power, which would ensure both national interests that complicate regionalism and the objective needs of the regions. In the proposed reform, in my opinion, it is quite possible to maintain such a balance of interests.
There is an opinion that the proportional election system interferes with the formation of a democratic state. I would like to note that there is no established ideal because
electoral system, which would be a perfect standard for determining the level of democratization of any state. Therefore, we believe that the state’s adoption of a proportional system of elections to its legislative body (or rather, to one of its chambers) cannot be considered a distance from democracy.
The main criterion for compliance of changes to these principles is the possibility of realizing a situation where the people are provided with effective access to the exercise of state power, and the people will be the only source of power and bearer of sovereignty. There is every reason to assert that the reforms proposed by the President comply with democratic norms.
Like any system, the proportional system is not without its drawbacks. Half of our Duma members are still elected under this system, and, according to experts, list deputies have little connection with voters in the regions81. It is also necessary to take into account the practice of incorrect compilation of lists. Often, completely unknown and sometimes dubious personalities end up there and secure their place in the Duma at the expense of popular politicians.
The proportional system will to some extent violate the right of non-party citizens to apply for election to parliament. But in order to implement any idea, a deputy elected in a single-mandate constituency must necessarily join a political or party group. He cannot solve the problem alone. In this case, there is nothing wrong with him immediately declaring his affiliation with one or another party before his election. And in principle, a person who is a member of a party is more rational. He has a program of action that coincides with the general party one. He will work more purposefully and productively. Such a person, unlike a non-party person, will not go through the “throwing” stage, weighing the pros and cons in favor of one or another parliamentary faction. All will be
41 Speech by the Chairman of the Central Election Commission A. A. Veshnyakov at an extended meeting of the Federation Council Committee on Constitutional Legislation on October 28, 2004.
be decided before the election, which is perhaps more honest politically, because clearer to voters. In contrast to the majoritarian system of relative majority, when a regional imbalance is formed along party lines, when using a proportional system, this effect is minimized. There are no distortions that come from majoritarian systems.
Let's look at the prospects and make predictions. Party lists will be formed by party organizations and will cover the entire territory of the Federation. Thus, they will become regional, and the federal part of the list will contain only three names - the most prominent party leaders.
Non-party deputies vying for a seat in parliament will need to either create their own parties or join existing ones. It is possible, while remaining non-partisan, to negotiate with parties and follow party lists.
The situation may be replete with interesting collisions. If for some reason a party member who has passed the Duma refuses his mandate, the party must lose it! mandate. However, there is an exception; it can only be made if party members are invited to work in the Russian Government.
Among the parties that have overcome the 7 percent threshold, deputy mandates should be distributed according to the share of votes cast in the relevant territory. 11 Ultimately, the number of deputy mandates a party receives will depend on the total number of voters who voted for it.
In order to strengthen the connection between deputies and voters, it is proposed locally to introduce a special norm into legislation obliging members of the State Duma to work in their regions during breaks between parliamentary sessions. Accordingly, failure by a deputy to fulfill his duties in his region may become grounds for his recall. Both his own party and the voters themselves will be able to initiate the recall of the people’s choice. The decision on the revocation will be made by the Supreme Court. In addition, the deputy will not
slowly be expelled from parliament if he decides to leave the ranks of the party that nominated him for another political organization.
The CEC also proposes to abandon the legal registration of electoral blocs. In addition, the legislative amendments that parliament will consider tighten the procedure for registering candidates for elective positions. For example, if among the signatures collected by a candidate in his support, the number of invalid ones is five percent, then he will be removed from the election race.
So, the proposed reforms have both advantages and disadvantages, but can they be avoided? An example is the majoritarian system of relative majority, where the winning party or candidate actually represents a minority of voters, because, having received a majority of seats in parliament, it almost never receives a majority of votes in the country as a whole, there is a loss of voters, and there are many such examples. Currently, the proportional system is used in Austria, Estonia, Latvia, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Poland, and the Czech Republic, which indicates the consistency of this system. Regarding the appointment of governors, one cannot fail to note many positive aspects, in particular, “random people” will no longer appear in the post of governor, the governor will exercise control security forces etc.
In general, the reforms are aimed at balance in the country in order to ensure effective functioning and solution of the tasks that the citizens of the country pose to the authorities. I would like to end the article with the words of Mao Tse-tung: “A person who has felt the wind of change should not build a shield from the wind, but a windmill.”
Social science. Full course preparation for the Unified State Exam Shemakhanova Irina Albertovna
4.12. Political participation
4.12. Political participation
Political participation – 1) actions through which ordinary members of any political system influence or try to influence the results of its activities ( J. Nagel); 2) “any activity voluntarily carried out by citizens with the aim of influencing decision-making at various levels of the political system; participation in politics is understood, first of all, as a conscious, purposeful activity" ( M. Kaase); 3) the influence of citizens on the functioning of the political system, the formation of political institutions and the process of making political decisions.
Political participation refers to political actions themselves, and not actions that may cause political consequences. Practical and goal-oriented forms political participation characterized by scale and intensity.
Theories of political participation
1. Rational choice theory: The main subject of political participation is a free individual, striving for the maximum realization of his interests and effectively acting in the name of achieving his own goals. The interest of an individual is understood as the desire to ensure personal well-being, and an individual’s participation in politics is possible provided that the possible income from participation exceeds the costs. This principle is called “benefit maximization.”
2. Motivational theories of political participation: The most common motives for political participation include ideological (a person participates in political life by sharing and supporting the official ideology of society); normative (the behavior of an individual is based on recognition of the power of power, developed in the process of political socialization); role (related to the social role, the social position of the individual in the existing political system; the lower the social position of the individual, the more likely his radical attitude against the existing government becomes).
3. Theories of social factors of political participation: the relationship and influence on political participation of such factors as the level of socio-economic equality and opportunities for social mobility, stability and others are explored.
4. "Michigan Model" of Electoral Participation(Party identification of voters is formed through political socialization, the main agent of which is the family).
5. Psychological school: focuses on the motives and attitudes of the individual.
A type of activity of subjects whose actions are motivated is political behavior– direct interaction between participants in political activities.
Levels and types of political participation:
* Reaction (positive or negative) to impulses emanating from the political system, from its institutions or their representatives, not related to the need for high human activity; occasional participation in politics.
* Activities related to the delegation of powers: participation in elections (local or state level), referendums, etc.
* Participation in political and related activities public organizations: parties, pressure groups, trade unions, youth political associations and others.
* Carrying out political functions within state institutions, including funds mass media.
* Professional, leadership political and ideological activities.
* Participation in extra-institutional political movements and actions aimed at radically restructuring the existing political system.
Typology of political behavior
1) By subjects: individual; group; massive.
2) By meaningfulness of actions: conscious forms of political behavior, which are based on value, rational and other similar motives; unconscious, where motivation is removed from the control of consciousness, and impulses are carried out by lower reflex levels of the psyche (affective actions that arise in the crowd as a reaction to non-standard situations).
3) By publicity of actions: open (for example, participation in elections, demonstrations, rallies); closed forms (absenteeism, political passivity).
4) By compliance of actions with official (dominant) norms of the political system: normative (law-abiding, loyalty, conformism); deviant, deviating from regulations, including pathological forms of political behavior (panic, hysteria, manic political prejudices).
5) C points of view of continuity of political development: traditional, characteristic of a given society, regime, mentality; innovative, introducing new features into the relations of government subjects among themselves and with government institutions.
6) C point of view of the dominant nature of motivation: autonomous, in which actions are determined by the subjects themselves; mobilization, where actions are caused primarily by reasons external to the subject of the action.
7) By ways of manifestation: riot; protest; mass discontent.
8) By duration: long-term; short-term.
9) By directions: constructive and solidary as manifestations of political participation; destructive; extremist;
10) By legality criterion: conventional (behavior that uses legal forms of expression of interests and influence on government that meet generally accepted norms: participation in elections, lobbying, financing election campaigns, initiative movements, etc.) and non-conventional (behavior that is illegal or contrary to generally accepted political norms: protest, disobedience to government authority ). Unconventional behavior is divided into non-violent (rallies, protest marches, pickets) and violent types (covering a range of actions from riots and property damage to terrorism). Conscious refusal to obey laws (and in exceptional cases, refusal to pay taxes), holding unauthorized protests, stopping all business activities - all these actions are united under the name “civil disobedience” (the tactics of mass non-violent civil disobedience have been justified M. Gandhi And M. L. King).
TO political participation include: a) actions on delegation of powers (electoral behavior); activist activities aimed at supporting candidates and parties in election campaigns; attending rallies and participating in demonstrations; participation in the activities of parties and interest groups; b) passive forms political behavior of citizens; participation of people only in elections of representative bodies of government or only in solving local problems; professional actions of politicians.
For the political participation of citizens, objective conditions (alignment of political forces, political culture of society) are important; subjective conditions (attitude to the political system, motives for participation in politics, their values, needs, knowledge, awareness).
Factors influencing political behavior are: gender, age, religious affiliation, features of primary socialization, education, Family status, socio-economic conditions, some general trends behavior of individual electoral groups and others.
Political behavior – this is a set of reactions of social subjects (social, communities, groups, individuals, etc.) to the activities of the political system.
Political protest – variety negative impact individual (group) on the current political situation in society or specific actions of the authorities affecting it. Sources of political protest: weak commitment of citizens to the prevailing values in society, psychological dissatisfaction with the current state of affairs, as well as the lack of proper sensitivity of the authorities to the current needs of the population. To give the protest a civilized form, freedom of speech is ensured in democratic states, and an institution of opposition is formed, which is represented by the activities of non-governmental parties and movements. In a number of countries, the opposition even creates “shadow” governments that constantly oppose the ruling structures on all important issues. political issues, publishing their own assessments and forecasts, plans and programs for solving certain problems.
The most radical manifestation of political protest is political extremism, which expresses a commitment in politics to extreme views and actions. Political extremism – this is always legal nihilism. Political extremism is a phenomenon of international scale, it contains danger for subjects international relations, policies of peaceful cooperation between states, in general for international security. Distinctive feature extremism in the political sphere of public relations is its ability to synthesize extremist manifestations occurring in other areas of society and give them a political orientation.
Political participation is opposed to such type of political behavior as absenteeism (avoidance from participation in political life - voting, election campaigns, protests, activities of parties, interest groups, etc.; loss of interest in politics and political norms, political apathy). Absenteeism type of behavior exists in any society, but its growth, as well as the growth in the proportion of apathetic people, indicates a serious crisis in the legitimacy of the political system, its norms and values. Causes of absenteeism: a) dominance of subculture norms in the individual with almost complete displacement of generally accepted cultural norms; b) a high degree of satisfaction of personal interests, which can lead to a loss of interest in politics; c) the ability of an individual to independently cope with his problems and privately defend his interests gives rise to a feeling of the uselessness of politics; d) feelings of helplessness in the face of complex problems, distrust in political institutions, a feeling of inability to somehow influence the process of developing and making decisions; e) the collapse of group norms, the loss of an individual’s sense of belonging to any social group, and, consequently, goals and values social life, lack of ideas about the connection between politics and private life. Absenteeism is more common among young people, representatives of various subcultures, and people with a low level of education.
This text is an introductory fragment. From the book Italy. Calabria author Kunyavsky L. M.Political and administrative structure In 1946, Italy became a republic, according to the constitution of 1948 - a parliamentary republic headed by a president (elected for 7 years), with a bicameral parliament - the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. Since 1994, the electoral system has been largely
From the book Social Studies. A complete course of preparation for the Unified State Exam author Shemakhanova Irina Albertovna4.13. Political leadership Political leadership - 1) constant priority influence on the part of a certain person on an organization, group or entire society; 2) managerial status, social position associated with making government decisions; This is a leadership position;
author Nikolaev Igor MikhailovichPolitical development Functioning in the 17th century. The system of central and local authorities and management, their structure developed mainly already in the 16th century. Key positions in all levels of the state apparatus continued to be held by the feudal aristocracy and
From the book History. New complete guide schoolchildren to prepare for the Unified State Exam author Nikolaev Igor MikhailovichPolitical development In March 1990, elections of people's deputies of the RSFSR were held, and in May-June 1990 the First Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR was held, which elected B.N. Yeltsin as head of state, R.I. Khasbulatov - his first deputy. A bicameral Supreme Council was created. 12
From the book Politics by Joyce PeterPOLITICAL PARTICIPATION Political participation presupposes that citizens have the opportunity to play an independent role in the political life of the country. The main instrument for implementing the principle is the election mechanism. In some liberal democracies (notably
author author unknown35. POLITICAL PARTICIPATION, FORMS AND VARIETIES Political participation is what makes up the real political process. Individuals and social groups within a particular political system are involved in the political process in different ways. Based
From the book Political Science: Cheat Sheet author author unknown36. POLITICAL LEADERSHIP IN modern science The following main approaches to the interpretation of leadership are distinguished: this is a type of power, the difference of which is its direction from top to bottom, and also the fact that its bearer is not the majority, but one person or group
From the book Political Science: Cheat Sheet author author unknown40. POLITICAL CONSCIOUSNESS, ITS ESSENCE With the advent of the state and the development of the political organization of society, political consciousness arises and develops. This is that part of public consciousness that is directly related to political phenomena and
From the book Lawyer Encyclopedia by the authorPolitical asylum POLITICAL ASYLUM - an institution of modern international and domestic law - the possibility of a foreigner (stateless person) is uncertain for a long time remain on the territory of that state and enjoy protection
From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (PO) by the author TSB author Isaev Boris AkimovichJ. Blondel. Political Leadership Leadership is as old as humanity. It is universal and inevitable. It exists everywhere - in organizations large and small, in business and religion, in trade unions and charities, in companies and universities. It
From the book Political Science: a Reader author Isaev Boris AkimovichSection XIV Political behavior Political behavior is one of the central topics political science. Throughout the history of political science, various researchers, representatives of a wide variety of political science schools, have addressed it. In this section
From the book Dream Society. How the coming shift from information to imagination will transform your business by Rolf JensenPolitical self-service Most of of our time belongs to two spheres - family and company. However, many people spend their time trying to motivate the community to do something - be it locally or nationally. As our planet gets bigger
From the book India. South (except Goa) author Tarasyuk Yaroslav V. From the book Brazil author Maria SigalovaPolitical structure Brazil is a federal republic with a multi-party political system. The current Constitution of the country was adopted in updated version in 1988, the heads of the executive branch - the president and vice president - are elected for 4 years with the right
From the book India: North (except Goa) author Tarasyuk Yaroslav V.Political structure The Republic of India (Hindi Bharat Ganarajya, Republic of India) is a federal (sanghiya) state. The Constitution (Sanvidhan) of India came into force on January 26, 1950. It established a democratic (janvadi) regime in the country and established a parliamentary form of government
